Wikiversity:Signature

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In order for others to see who wrote a certain entry, it is customary to sign posts to [[Wikiversity:Talk pages|talk (or &quot;discussion&quot;) pages]]. This page explains how you can create an automatic signature that links back to your [[Wikiversity:User pages|user page]]. Please do not sign your contributions on content pages. To see who has edited a content page check its [[Wikiversity:Page history|history]].

&lt;ref&gt;--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~--~~~~&lt;/ref&gt;== How to add your signature ==
[[Image:Signature.png|thumb|right|330px|Location of the &quot;signature&quot; button in the edit toolbar]]
[[Image:Preferences.png|thumb|right|330px|How to activate the edit toolbar using &quot;my preferences&quot;]]
You can add a signature to a post by writing four [[w:Tilde|tildes]]&amp;nbsp;(&amp;nbsp;&lt;code&gt;~&lt;/code&gt;&amp;nbsp;) at the end. After you save your post, a link to your user page will appear (if you haven't registered, your user page will be your [[w:IP address|IP address]]). There are two ways to sign your posts:

# Type four tildes (~), like this:  &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 
# Use the edit toolbar. The edit toolbar is an option (see [[Special:Preferences]]; tick the &quot;Enable the editing toolbar&quot; box. When you click the signature icon the four tildes for a signature are inserted into the edit window.

There are several different ways, tildes can be used:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Entering&amp;nbsp;…
! …&amp;nbsp;after saving turns into&amp;nbsp;…
! …&amp;nbsp;and is displayed as&amp;nbsp;…
|- 
! &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;User:''User name''&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;''User name'']]&lt;/code&gt;
| ''User name''
|-
! &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;User:''User name''&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;''User name'']] {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)&lt;/code&gt;
| ''User name''  {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)
|-
! &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code&gt; {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)&lt;/code&gt;
|  {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)
|}

== How to customize signatures ==

The [[Special:Preferences|preferences dialog]] provides an option to customize your signature nickname. To enable [[w:wiki markup|wiki markup]] there, check the ''Raw signature'' box. Now you can enter your new signature ''Nickname'' using wiki markup. After saving your changes, your new signature will appear whenever you sign a post.

Many Wikiversity participants include a link to their talk page in their signature. The following code entered under ''Nickname'' in the preferences dialog creates that link:
:&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[User:User name|name]] [[User talk:User name|talk]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
Of course, this can be customized further to meet one's needs.

=== Colorful signatures ===
In general, signatures should be fairly short and not too distracting. While colors aren't in general a problem, one should avoid drawing too much attention to one's signature. Excessive customization distracts readers who try to follow long discussions on a talk page. Specifically, you may not [[Help:Templates|transclude]] a page in your signature.

== Missing signatures ==
If a user has forgotten to sign their post, you can add a signature subsequently by using {{tl|unsigned}}. The template also reminds users that they need to sign their posts. You use the template as follows:
:&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{unsigned|''User name or IP address''|~~~~}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;050978

Most Wikiversity pages have an associated &quot;[[Help:Talk pages|talk page]]&quot; for discussions. When you contribute to a discussion on a talk page, add your signature.

== Test area ==
You can test your signature here, or in the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|Sandbox]]. Give it a try!
--Melanie Bahena 20:55, 31 May 2018 (UTC)

==See also==
* {{tl|Signature}}

[[Category:Help|Signature]]</text>
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In order for others to see who wrote a certain entry, it is customary to sign posts to [[Wikiversity:Talk pages|talk (or &quot;discussion&quot;) pages]]. This page explains how you can create an automatic signature that links back to your [[Wikiversity:User pages|user page]]. Please do not sign your contributions on content pages. To see who has edited a content page check its [[Wikiversity:Page history|history]].

== How to add your signature ==
[[Image:Signature.png|thumb|right|330px|Location of the &quot;signature&quot; button in the edit toolbar]]
[[Image:Preferences.png|thumb|right|330px|How to activate the edit toolbar using &quot;my preferences&quot;]]
You can add a signature to a post by writing four [[w:Tilde|tildes]]&amp;nbsp;(&amp;nbsp;&lt;code&gt;~&lt;/code&gt;&amp;nbsp;) at the end. After you save your post, a link to your user page will appear (if you haven't registered, your user page will be your [[w:IP address|IP address]]). There are two ways to sign your posts:

# Type four tildes (~), like this:  &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 
# Use the edit toolbar. The edit toolbar is an option (see [[Special:Preferences]]; tick the &quot;Enable the editing toolbar&quot; box. When you click the signature icon the four tildes for a signature are inserted into the edit window.

There are several different ways, tildes can be used:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Entering&amp;nbsp;…
! …&amp;nbsp;after saving turns into&amp;nbsp;…
! …&amp;nbsp;and is displayed as&amp;nbsp;…
|- 
! &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;User:''User name''&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;''User name'']]&lt;/code&gt;
| ''User name''
|-
! &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;User:''User name''&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;''User name'']] {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)&lt;/code&gt;
| ''User name''  {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)
|-
! &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code&gt; {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)&lt;/code&gt;
|  {{#time:H:i, j F Y}} (UTC)
|}

== How to customize signatures ==

The [[Special:Preferences|preferences dialog]] provides an option to customize your signature nickname. To enable [[w:wiki markup|wiki markup]] there, check the ''Raw signature'' box. Now you can enter your new signature ''Nickname'' using wiki markup. After saving your changes, your new signature will appear whenever you sign a post.

Many Wikiversity participants include a link to their talk page in their signature. The following code entered under ''Nickname'' in the preferences dialog creates that link:
:&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[User:User name|name]] [[User talk:User name|talk]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
Of course, this can be customized further to meet one's needs.

=== Colorful signatures ===
In general, signatures should be fairly short and not too distracting. While colors aren't in general a problem, one should avoid drawing too much attention to one's signature. Excessive customization distracts readers who try to follow long discussions on a talk page. Specifically, you may not [[Help:Templates|transclude]] a page in your signature.

== Missing signatures ==
If a user has forgotten to sign their post, you can add a signature subsequently by using {{tl|unsigned}}. The template also reminds users that they need to sign their posts. You use the template as follows:
:&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{unsigned|''User name or IP address''|~~~~}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;050978

Most Wikiversity pages have an associated &quot;[[Help:Talk pages|talk page]]&quot; for discussions. When you contribute to a discussion on a talk page, add your signature.

== Test area ==
You can test your signature here, or in the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|Sandbox]]. Give it a try!
--Melanie Bahena 20:55, 31 May 2018 (UTC)

==See also==
* {{tl|Signature}}

[[Category:Help|Signature]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>What do the unions do?</title>
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      <comment>added to ==See also==</comment>
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      <text bytes="1472" sha1="a5ejicy56k8oii5w7nyj9r698smxfkg" xml:space="preserve">The project aims to assess which are the labour unions' goals. What do they maximize? Only the wage rate as the Nickell's Right-to-Manage model states, both the wage rate and the level of empoloyment as in the McDonald and Solow's Efficient Bargaining, or both the wage rate and the hours of work as in Pencavel's? The literature on labour unions still have not found an answer and the empirical evidence does not seem to confirm the first two. Anyone who has opinions, empirical evidence or theoretical works can is welcomed to contribute to the project. In particular the literature of labour unions should still find evidence about the relation between hours of work and level of employment. Any contribution on the field is welcomed!

==Discussion questions and essay ideas==
* How have labor unions helped workers throughout history? 
* How have labor unions benefited and harmed companies throughout history? 

==Educational readings==
===Wikipedia===
* [[w:Trade union|Trade union]]
* [[w:Trade_union#Prevalence_worldwide|Union prevalence worldwide]]
* [[w:International Labour Organization|International Labour Organization]]
* [[w:Labor unions in the United States|Labor unions in the United States]]
* [[w:Labor history of the United States|Labor history of the United States]]

==See also==
* [[Industrial Union of Psychic Workers]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Union membership motivation]]
* [[U. S. Government/Labor Movement]]

[[Category:Economics]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Machine learning</title>
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      <text bytes="3259" sha1="o1577mqomfb9ghkb47bnf4gnfbobw8d" xml:space="preserve">Machine learning is a scientific discipline that is concerned with the design and development of [[algorithms]] that allow [[computers]] to evolve on on empirical data, such as from sensor data or databases. A major focus of machine learning research is to automatically learn to recognize complex patterns and make intelligent decisions based on data; the difficulty lies in the fact that the set of all possible behaviors given all possible inputs is too complex to describe generally in programming languages, so that in effect programs must automatically describe programs. [[Artificial intelligence]] is a closely related field, as also [[w:probability theory|probability theory]] and [[statistics]], data mining, pattern recognition, adaptive control, and theoretical [[School:computer science|computer science]].

==Topics==
*[[Machine learning/Bird's Eye View|Bird's Eye View]]
*[[Reinforcement Learning]]
*[[Unsupervised Learning]]
*[[Machine learning/Supervised Learning|Supervised Learning]]
*[[Machine learning/Statistics Fundamentals|Statistics Fundamentals]]
*[[Artificial Neural Networks]]
*[[Transformer Architecture]]
*[[Inductive Inference]]
*[[PAC Learning]]
*[[VC Dimension]]


==Offsite courses==

=== MIT Open Learning Library ===

* [https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu/courses/course-v1:MITx+6.036+1T2019/about Introduction to Machine Learning] , undergraduate course 6.036.

===Mathematical Monk===
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD0F06AA0D2E8FFBA Machine Learning], 160 video lectures hosted on Youtube.


===Lecture notes===
* ''[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~avrim/ML07/ Foundations of Machine Learning and Data Science]'', Nina Balcan and Avrim Blum, Carnegie Mellon University, Fall 2015
* [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-867-machine-learning-fall-2006/ Machine Learning], Rohil Singh, Tommi Jaakkola, and Ali Mohammad, MIT, Fall 2006.

==Readings==
{{RightTOC}}
=== Wikipedia ===
{{:Cross-domain_AI_topics}}
=== Machine learning topics ===
* [[w:Machine learning|Machine learning]]
* [[w:Artificial intelligence|Artificial intelligence]]
* [[w:Computational learning theory|Computational learning theory]]
* [[w:Pattern recognition|Pattern recognition]]
* [[w:Genetic algorithm|Genetic algorithm]]
* [[w:Deep learning|Deep learning]]
* [[w:Artificial neural network|Artificial neural network]]
* [[w:List of machine learning concepts|List of machine learning concepts]]
* [[w:Journal of Machine Learning Research|Journal of Machine Learning Research]]
* [[w:List of datasets for machine learning research|List of datasets for machine learning research]]
* [[w:Quantum machine learning|Quantum machine learning]]
* {{w|Vanishing gradient problem}}

=== Textbooks ===

* [https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~tom/mlbook.html Machine Learning] by Tom Mitchell, published McGraw Hill, 1997.
* [https://www.deeplearningbook.org/ Deep Learning] by Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, and Aaron Courville, published MIT Press, 2016.

==See also==
*[[School:Computer Science]]
==External links==
*[http://www.reddit.com/r/MachineLearning/ MachineLearning on Reddit]
*[https://github.com/drewconway/ML-Email-Code Sample 'R' code demonstrating key concepts in machine learning on text data]

= Index =
{{Subpages/List}}


[[Category:Machine learning| ]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3273" sha1="ho5w7i31vqj3nv4ow4oy5wiyer5820f" xml:space="preserve">Machine learning is a scientific discipline that is concerned with the design and development of [[algorithms]] that allow [[computers]] to evolve behaviours based on empirical data, such as from sensor data or databases. A major focus of machine learning research is to automatically learn to recognize complex patterns and make intelligent decisions based on data; the difficulty lies in the fact that the set of all possible behaviors given all possible inputs is too complex to describe generally in programming languages, so that in effect programs must automatically describe programs. [[Artificial intelligence]] is a closely related field, as also [[w:probability theory|probability theory]] and [[statistics]], data mining, pattern recognition, adaptive control, and theoretical [[School:computer science|computer science]].

==Topics==
*[[Machine learning/Bird's Eye View|Bird's Eye View]]
*[[Reinforcement Learning]]
*[[Unsupervised Learning]]
*[[Machine learning/Supervised Learning|Supervised Learning]]
*[[Machine learning/Statistics Fundamentals|Statistics Fundamentals]]
*[[Artificial Neural Networks]]
*[[Transformer Architecture]]
*[[Inductive Inference]]
*[[PAC Learning]]
*[[VC Dimension]]


==Offsite courses==

=== MIT Open Learning Library ===

* [https://openlearninglibrary.mit.edu/courses/course-v1:MITx+6.036+1T2019/about Introduction to Machine Learning] , undergraduate course 6.036.

===Mathematical Monk===
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLD0F06AA0D2E8FFBA Machine Learning], 160 video lectures hosted on Youtube.


===Lecture notes===
* ''[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~avrim/ML07/ Foundations of Machine Learning and Data Science]'', Nina Balcan and Avrim Blum, Carnegie Mellon University, Fall 2015
* [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-867-machine-learning-fall-2006/ Machine Learning], Rohil Singh, Tommi Jaakkola, and Ali Mohammad, MIT, Fall 2006.

==Readings==
{{RightTOC}}
=== Wikipedia ===
{{:Cross-domain_AI_topics}}
=== Machine learning topics ===
* [[w:Machine learning|Machine learning]]
* [[w:Artificial intelligence|Artificial intelligence]]
* [[w:Computational learning theory|Computational learning theory]]
* [[w:Pattern recognition|Pattern recognition]]
* [[w:Genetic algorithm|Genetic algorithm]]
* [[w:Deep learning|Deep learning]]
* [[w:Artificial neural network|Artificial neural network]]
* [[w:List of machine learning concepts|List of machine learning concepts]]
* [[w:Journal of Machine Learning Research|Journal of Machine Learning Research]]
* [[w:List of datasets for machine learning research|List of datasets for machine learning research]]
* [[w:Quantum machine learning|Quantum machine learning]]
* {{w|Vanishing gradient problem}}

=== Textbooks ===

* [https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~tom/mlbook.html Machine Learning] by Tom Mitchell, published McGraw Hill, 1997.
* [https://www.deeplearningbook.org/ Deep Learning] by Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, and Aaron Courville, published MIT Press, 2016.

==See also==
*[[School:Computer Science]]
==External links==
*[http://www.reddit.com/r/MachineLearning/ MachineLearning on Reddit]
*[https://github.com/drewconway/ML-Email-Code Sample 'R' code demonstrating key concepts in machine learning on text data]

= Index =
{{Subpages/List}}


[[Category:Machine learning| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Scientology</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-09-09T22:19:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Ten</username>
        <id>654933</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and learning related AI prompt ideas== * How does the concept of the reactive mind relate to [[emotional regulation]]?  // bless up.</comment>
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      <text bytes="790" sha1="7txqlacdn4fez0rswjtxqsb309gfolu" xml:space="preserve">Scientology (as a word) means something to the effect of &quot;the study of knowing&quot;. 

==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and learning related AI prompt ideas==
* How does the concept of the reactive mind relate to [[emotional regulation]]? 

==Learning Resources==
*[[Church of Scientology]]
*[[Origins of Scientology]]
*[[Free-use Scientology-related video project]]

==External Resources==
===Followers of this religion===
*[[media:Tom_Cruise_2006.jpg|Tom Cruise]]

=== Official Sites ===
*[http://www.scientology.org/ Main Church Official Website]
*[http://www.whatisscientology.org/ What is Scientology: Catechism]
*[http://www.scientology-tampa.org/ Tampa Church Site]
*[http://www.volunteerministers.org/ Volunteer Ministers]

==See also ==
* [[Epistemology]]

[[Category:Scientology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Emotional regulation</title>
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      <text bytes="1226" sha1="eeola7tdt0rbeaw7lyhg2ekssezo2gs" xml:space="preserve">Regulating emotions can understood as a skill that we learn as we develop, continuing into adulthood. Emotional self-regulation is part of [[emotional intelligence]]. 

In the behavior-cognition-emotion model, we have the least direct control over our emotions, we have more control over our thoughts, and we have the most control over our behaviors. 

Our thoughts and behaviors influence our emotions. We can strategically influence our emotions be changing our behaviors and thoughts. 

==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and learning related AI prompt ideas==
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to psychology? 
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to theology? 

==See also==
* [[Self-regulation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation: What is self-regulation, why is it important, and how can it be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Emotional regulation through meditation|Emotional regulation through meditation: How can meditation help with emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

{{psych-stub}}

[[Category:Emotional self-regulation]]</text>
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        <username>Michael Ten</username>
        <id>654933</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Michael Ten moved page [[Emotional self-regulation]] to [[Emotional regulation]]: moving page to re word it slightly - same concept effectively. please move it back if best. limitless peace. </comment>
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      <text bytes="1226" sha1="eeola7tdt0rbeaw7lyhg2ekssezo2gs" xml:space="preserve">Regulating emotions can understood as a skill that we learn as we develop, continuing into adulthood. Emotional self-regulation is part of [[emotional intelligence]]. 

In the behavior-cognition-emotion model, we have the least direct control over our emotions, we have more control over our thoughts, and we have the most control over our behaviors. 

Our thoughts and behaviors influence our emotions. We can strategically influence our emotions be changing our behaviors and thoughts. 

==Discussion questions, essay ideas, and learning related AI prompt ideas==
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to psychology? 
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to theology? 

==See also==
* [[Self-regulation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation: What is self-regulation, why is it important, and how can it be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Emotional regulation through meditation|Emotional regulation through meditation: How can meditation help with emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

{{psych-stub}}

[[Category:Emotional self-regulation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1420" sha1="k5d3wsp5r81oov5gdezoud1p3tpc480" xml:space="preserve">Regulating one's [[emotion]]s can be understood as a skill that is developed during childhood and into adulthood. Emotional self-regulation is part of [[emotional intelligence]]. 

Essentially, this evolves managing and coping with one's emotions.

If one's emotions aren't well regulated, this is called emotional dysregulation.

In the behaviour-cognition-emotion model, we have:
* the least direct control over our emotions
* more control over our thoughts
* most control over our behaviours

Our thoughts and behaviours influence our emotions. We can strategically influence our emotions be changing our behaviours and thoughts. 

==Questions to consider==
* What emotions do I struggle to regulate?
* How can I improve my emotion regulation?
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to psychology? 
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to theology? 

==See also==
* [[Coping]]
* [[Self-regulation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation: What is self-regulation, why is it important, and how can it be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Emotional regulation through meditation|Emotional regulation through meditation: How can meditation help with emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

{{psych-stub}}

[[Category:Emotional self-regulation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1421" sha1="81cug6ah8p788vtb1srgbfy23msxiov" xml:space="preserve">Regulating one's [[emotion]]s can be understood as a skill that is developed during childhood and into adulthood. Emotional self-regulation is part of [[emotional intelligence]]. 

Essentially, this involves managing and coping with one's emotions.

If one's emotions aren't well regulated, this is called emotional dysregulation.

In the behaviour-cognition-emotion model, we have:
* the least direct control over our emotions
* more control over our thoughts
* most control over our behaviours

Our thoughts and behaviours influence our emotions. We can strategically influence our emotions be changing our behaviours and thoughts. 

==Questions to consider==
* What emotions do I struggle to regulate?
* How can I improve my emotion regulation?
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to psychology? 
* How does emotional self-regulation relate to theology? 

==See also==
* [[Coping]]
* [[Self-regulation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation: What is self-regulation, why is it important, and how can it be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Emotional regulation through meditation|Emotional regulation through meditation: How can meditation help with emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] (Wikipedia)

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'''''This is the original [[Empathy Model]] article.  It was meant as an action research model, and slowly evolved into a self-standing wiki by a single [[User:John Bessa |author.]]  The present article attempts to complete the transition; it more leans towards a psychology manual.'''''

[[File:Mystery the cat.JPG|right|thumb| I recently adopted a cat who was still much of a kitten in many respects and very sweet when we found him, but was homeless and had to survive his first winter by in the nearby forest by hunting. He is incredibly affectionate, makes himself loved, and wherever he goes, he often got handouts from my neighbors. When this cat, now named Mystery, and I were first getting to know each other, he showed up with a bird he had just caught. I went to get my camera to document the even, but when I got back there was absolutely nothing was left of the bird except claws and a few feathers. And then when we were playing a little later he sank her teeth and claws into my hand, and she would have torn it apart if I let her. As a hunter, his &quot;sweet&quot; nature had given way to his predatory nature, and while we were playing, his neural mapping--or perhaps &quot;motor memory&quot;--kept his hunter nature alive even as we played affectionately.  So because of his hunting nature, he a bit bi-polar and can play very rough.

One night he caught a mouse, then another the next night another, then another... until I figured out it was re-catching the same mouse!  He had changed his hunting style and become a catch-and-release cat, showing concern for the life of the mouse: his empathy.  Finally the mouse stopped visiting.

He seems to have two natures that are completely different. One nature shows his life in a family, or social, environment; and the second shows how he survives in a hostile natural environment.  Unlike Mystery when we met him, we humans have had an alternate to potentially hostile environments.  We have escaped danger by creating socially supportive environments, and through ingenuity and collaboration we have been able to create the resources that we initially fought for by hybridizing nutritious plants.  Traditionally our foods are grain-based, and were garnished for further nutrition.  Sometimes the garnish was meat, but meat seems to be historically rare, as it was difficult to obtain, and not necessarily a sustainable resource.  The most interesting advance is the development of legumes as meat substitutes, especially the soy bean.

&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Sometime during the past few thousand years, people in the Far East solved the meat problem by domesticating and evolving the soy bean, which completely replaces meat. Buddhism may have started in India, but its basic principles lived so long in Eastern Asia that a culture was able resolve natural life's primary contradiction by collaborating technologically not just empathically, but with empathy as a goal.]]The real action, according to the empathy model, is in the spaces between us; very little is completely within us.  What connects us, and all higher animals, into a collaborative environment is the neurology that is the basis of our interactions: emotional connections.  Everything happens in the spaces between us. The quantum model of physics is analogous: we are points of energy, surrounded by fields of energy.  Individually we do very little, and as isolated individuals we suffer loneliness and become unhealthy.[http://docs.google.com/Doc?id=ddk32zv4_860c88v3qdp]

  '''In this model people are pointless, as everything happens in the spaces between us.''' 

[[Empathy_Model/Scratch | Revision underway ]]: The model has grown with time and much of the experimental material has been supported or deleted.  Initially meant developed as a template for action, or action research, it has become a comprehensive model; reworking is necessary to separate its intent from its assumptions, and to create hooks for new material, especially neurological, and underlying support from the environment [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Empathy_Model/Scratch].

===How wikis naturally develop new information===

Wikis build information from the information brought to them, an extension of the idea of meta-data. Sometimes the knowledge built from the information brought to the wiki is surprising. In the case of this wiki, a surprising finding is the idea that the rules-based system is so significant in this model, and in a negative way. Aside from the obvious social rules and guidelines found in human society that we take for granted, I found that another type of rules-based system exists in isolated, or unempathic, minds that can be punitive and corrupt.

A self-admitted obsessive helped me understand this type of rules-based system.  If you go to his house, he told me, you will find that everything is in its place, and any deviation from strict object placement in his environment is a violation of his basic rule; there will be consequences if there is any deviation. When I tried to bond with him, he flatly stated that he is not my friend and that we only work together. None-the-less he opened to me enough to share his rules-based system.  He was proud of his system (which is an illness) as he feels it gives him strength. It is significant in this discussion to say that he also stole; we worked together in a retail store and he stole from the sum of accidental cash overage that many stores get occasionally.

The significance is strong because the vast majority of people are not obsessed with rules, and won't let arbitrary rules impact their lives in negative ways. These findings within the wiki seemed insignificant because they are found in lesser minds.  Yet the way a wiki can naturally accumulate and structure information, giving each aspect equal significance, it can show the relationships between isolated facts and how they influence the greater whole. A wiki can show  a relationship between rules and exploitation giving the possibility that many of society's controlling factors may be the constructs of lesser minds--intelligent perhaps, but lacking in emotional communication abilities, and hence reliant on self-made rules as a substitute for natural, or God-given, morality.[http://docs.google.com/Doc?id=ddk32zv4_888ff9g72f2]

===The Model===


*A useful working model that can be applied by anyone to help develop benefits
*Initially introduces as a template for creating successful action research
*It is complex, but not overly complex ([[q:Albert_Einstein|Einstein]])
*Size, bias, love, and resources: Because the model is complex not every component has yet been installed; three missing are size, bias, and what Darwin called &quot;natural affection,&quot; or love.  
**Size is important; empathy is directly proportional to the distance from the bottom to the top of a control pyramid ([http://www.pww.org/archives95/95-09-23-3.html Micheal Moore, Roger and Me]).  
**Bias is equally important; obviously so looking when looking at photographs of lynchings.  But in my experience the most common bias is bias against bias, where the most common example is that any American suffering from job loss who complains about it is immediately branded a racist. Bias is viral.  
**Resources as a topic--obtaining or creating resources-- is central to organismic life, and complex life is supported by collaboration; it is empathic, or fits the emotional model.  The taking of resources is not collaborative, it is cooperative; violent robberies by gangs is typically predatory cooperation.
**Another important topic is the &quot;blood model&quot; of human evolution, which is easily opposed by the &quot;love model,&quot; of evolution that shows that empathic interrelations are based on empathic neurons, and empathic neurons have evolved to be nearly the same in different species that occupy different evolutionary branches. 
*It is to be used to develop learning into beneficial action in ways that have developed through natural and historical human evolution
**[http://thinman.com/empathy Empathy]
**[http://www.care2.com/c2c/group/empathy Empathy Action discussion group on Care2.com ]
**[http://www.believermag.com/issues/200709/?read=interview_dewaal Recent evolutionary neurological research by de Wall]
**[[Empathy_Model/Reference_material]] Other Empathy citations
*Very important are the works defining Synergy by Ruth Benedict, and the experiences of Native Americans during the Colonization/Immigration of North America by Cynthia C. Wesley-Esquimaux [http://www.ahf.ca/pages/download/28_41]
*Carl Rogers brought empathy to psychology and to the policy-making parts of society
*The most original work will show the development of modern compassionate religion in a historical context (George Hart), and the parallel development of the modern scientific approach
*A valuable tool for applying the empathy ideas of emotional communication] is found in computer communication: the [http://docs.google.com/Doc?id=ddk32zv4_588cgb23pzj#Layers &quot;network layer stack.&quot;]  The &quot;network layer stack&quot; abstracts all the concepts of computer communications, and allows them to coincide on different layers simultaneously in a especially the &quot;network layer stack&quot; that can be applied to help abstract emotional communication concepts.  But the key complexities of organismic conceptualization, especially in the evolution of communication neurons, are far beyond technology 
*Beyond this writing is the dark, or emotionally defective, side of humanity, or perhaps all organismic life.   &quot;Anti-empathy&quot; is described in the writing about recently convicted murderer, [http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2008/07/09/hans_reiser/index.html Hans Reiser].  Reiser is important because he is a connection into today's Information Society, and he is presently virtually on a microscope slide.  He shows the contradictions of the modern Information Society.  The Information Society's collaborative roots are in the e-mutualism of the free software community, which helps define emotional communication.  Reiser was an important e-mutualist leader, and creator of important file-system software, yet he symbolizes the Information Society's psychological digital nature, and its failure to be part of, or genuinely benefit, normal society. (Christopher May, [http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/faculty/profiles/45/14/] [http://www.dannybutt.net/infoclass/Chapter3.pdf]).
*Rationale discussion and the introduction of new ideas is found on the [[Talk:Empathy_Model|Empathy model discussion page]]

===Empathic neurons===
*Humans and other primates, elephants [http://www.elephantvoices.org/tools/documents/6_behaviouralreactionstoadyingelephant.pdf], and whales
**Spindle Neurons that join emotional and analytic parts of the brain to allow for conceptualization
**Mirror Neurons 
***Emotional connections between empathic organisms through these neurons
***Across distances as a sympathy developed into a form of Empathy supported by imagination
**Whales have neurons and neural constructs that humans, primates, and elephants do not: &quot;modular organization of certain cells into 'islands'&quot;[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-11/jws-hwh112006.php]
*Other animals such as pets, including birds, with whom we have emotional connections

===Communication===
====Digital====
*Character-based
*Rules-based
**'''''Ingenuine''''', or optionally truthful based on rules
***Beck's dishonesty with patients through the misuse of empathy in cognitive therapy [http://annotated-bibliographies-lnxsoc.blogspot.com/2005/04/cognitive-therapy-by-aaron-beck.html#AbuseOfEmpathy]

*Cooperative
**Predatory cooperation
*** '''Humboldt squid''', [[w:Dosidicus_gigas#Behavior_and_general_characteristics|cooperative hunt]] using binary digital communication through controllable colored skin cells, or [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11762491 chromatophores].  What we are learning from the Humboldt giant squid, is that empathic neurons are in no way necessary for predatory cooperation; actually neither is intelligence. All that is necessary is rudimentary binary communication. And they consume each other, not much different than human organ-harvesters[http://docs.google.com/Doc?id=ddk32zv4_905hdn62bfq].
*Synthetic
:::If the reversal of the evolutionary base is synthetic in that it has been caused by humanity's departure from the natural course of life, then the solution should be natural, which is the social marginalization of the morally defective, or those missing the neurons that are the triumph of evolution.[http://realbc.ning.com/forum/topics/the-kleptocratic-empire?page=1&amp;commentId=1497000%3AComment%3A19746&amp;x=1#1497000Comment19746]
*Viral adaption of bias 
**Manipulative exploitation of empathy into bias [http://www.care2.com/c2c/groups/disc.html?gpp=11122&amp;pst=978960]
**Anti-bias leveraged as bias
*Exploitative
**Competition
**Hate
*Capital
*Intelligent in the sense of calculating

====Emotional====
*Directly communicated
*Genuine based on emotional communication connections and natural morality
*Emotional trust
*Collaborative
*Adaptive
*Natural
*&quot;Uncomfortable&quot; emotional communication
**'''Anger''' [http://docs.google.com/Doc?id=ddk32zv4_922cf4jn3c2]
**Revenge
*Tribally Native
**Native relationship with the environment
**Synergy: Native society's construct
*Wise in the sense of broadly applicable understanding

===Synergy and Constructivism===
*Empathy for collaboration
*Collaboration as innovation
*Innovation as technology
*Digital technology devoid of empathy

====Synergy====
*Collaboration
*Generosity
*Tribal society (Benedict)

====Community of Knowledge====
*Leaving the family to entering into the community as a youngster
**Joining the community group as a novice
**Developing ideas that can be added to the community of knowledge
**Becoming expert
*Entering a community as a newcomer
**Learning about the community
**Comparing experiences
**Bringing and contributing knowledge
**Gaining acceptance
**Joining extended families
*Knowledge Construction
**Contributing information components
**Repairing existing components
*Surrounding Environment
**Extended community of knowledge
**Knowledge shared among animals
**DNA as an information layer of the greater community of knowledge
*Religion
**Community relationship with then environment
**Disciplined development of the relationship into Science

===Family===
*Nurturing and support
*Leaving the family for the community

===Societal Models===
'''Chronological''' Nearly geological

'''Native'''
*Basic human society inherited from nature through evolution
*Emotional relationship is with the environment
*Community of knowledge extends into environment
*Collaborative development of resources
*Emotional Communication health

'''Capital'''
*Development of capital families
**Family property, especially human and even family members
*Resource exploitation
*Violent annexation
**Cooperative predation
*Detached relationships
**Emotional Communication defective operators
**Digital

'''Compassionate'''
*Revolutionary
*Restoration of historically natural communities of knowledge
*Reconstruction of the constructed knowledge

'''Evolutionary Modern'''
*Extends naturally constructed knowledge
*Develops technology through collaboration
**Technology
**Modern Communication

===Self-defense===
'''Self-defense'''
*Buddhist martial arts
**&quot;No-sword&quot; technique, Yagyu Munenori, The Life-giving Sword [http://annotated-bibliographies-lnxsoc.blogspot.com/2005/05/life-giving-sword.html]
'''Cultural defense'''
*National defense
*Defense of the historical and natural community of knowledge

===Religion and Science===
'''Tribally native'''
*'''Sacrifice''' I feel that sacrifice comes from the difficult relationship of the forest dweller with the animals that are within his the scope of his environment actually becoming his family, and he may have to eat them. Forest children keep the orphaned animals from the hunt as pets.  Early innocent villagers whose animals evolved with him and are his friends, also sometimes has to eat them. [http://docs.google.com/Doc?id=ddk32zv4_911fjxxk7hn]
*Evolved into modern communities of families and individuals
*Communities of Knowledge of a few to a few hundred people 
'''Ancient empires'''
*Roman
**Capital (Durant)
**Colonialism
**Capital construction
*Egyptian
**Early Information Society (Mumford)
**Command and control
**Monument building
'''Compassionate and revolutionary'''
*Buddhism
**Respect for life including animals
*Christianity
**Equality under God
**'''Forgiveness''' Haters are constantly aware that retribution for the pain they have caused may be around the corner, and the paranoia that this fear causes may raise their level of hate exponentially.  Christ's approach of forgiveness is to diffuse the paranoia that hate causes; to forgive the actions caused by it and to reassure the paranoiac, reducing the fear the paranoia causes, reducing the chances of further painful actions. [[Empathy Model/Forgiveness]]
**Love
'''Scientific method, or model'''
*Single Phenomena
*Unbiased
*Community contribution and review

===Empathy support===
*Creating technology to support empathy, collaboration, and innovation
*Writing to get past the digital numerical and character barriers

===Mental Illnesses===
'''Traumatic distress''' common (victims of ECD)
*
*[[Talk:Empathy_Model#PTSD|PTSD]], [[w:Template_talk:Campaignbox_al-Qaeda_attacks#Military_targets| al-Qaeda attacks on military targets ]]
====Thinking disorders====
Rare
*Psychosis
====Depression====
Common
*Glandular 
*Environmental
====Emotional communication dysfunction (ECD)====
Less common
*Mental isolation
*Cruelty resulting from a disassociation from social reality resembling a thinking disorder
*Socially controlling
====Hybrid Emotional Communication dysfunctions====
Less common
*Part-time emotional communication isolation  
**[[Talk:Empathy_Model#Bi-polar|Bi-Polar]]
**[[Talk:Empathy_Model#OCD|OCD]]
**[[Talk:Empathy_Model#ADD|ADD]]

==Social disruption and empathic layers==
People interrelate into their community by constructing knowledge.  That knowledge is connective and largely shared, and it makes life meaningful.  Social disruption causes hardship; without the social context there loneliness and desperation.[[Talk:Empathy_Model#Social_disruption_and_empathic_layers]]


===Community destruction===

Communities that have been disrupted often remain physically, even though the people of the community have been displaced, or eradicated.  With the elimination of local peoples is the erasure of the community of knowledge. The natural context is replaced with a governance structure, where what remains of the original culture lives desperately under repression.


===Digital facade===

An information facade of synthetic emotional and societal constructs usually replaces the natural community of knowledge in the modern real estate development model.  Often fictional representations of locally destroyed communities are represented to entertain those who have replaced them.


===Social fracturing and the loss of health===

As the quality of life decays, especially at the end of life, modern synthesis, especially medicine, is used to rationalize the social fracturing, by prolonging life through chemistry as in the case of medicine.  As natural nurturing disappears so does the fundamental meaning of life, and with it the quality of life.


===Exploitation and destruction of culture===

Every emotional component of the original and natural community of knowledge disappears, except those that can easily be exploited. Historical structures are destroyed, though examples of culture may be preserved in museums.


===The severing of the social connection with nature by resource &quot;annexers&quot;===

With the disconnection from the environment, local humans loose their natural connection to their historical and evolutionary pasts.  The very first step in the annexation of resources by invading outsiders is always the destruction of this connection.


===Psychological layer===

The psychological layer of this erasure model challenges the empathy model because emotionally connecting constructs are missing: nurturing, emotional communication, the construction of knowledge and the emotional aspects of communities of knowledge.  Uncomfortable components are introduced: anger and vengeance.  Some strong people turn inwards meditatively. The anti-empathic adapt virally and act through predatory cooperation.  Those who have been displaced, or worse, may rebel violently; they are labeled violent and punished, or worse, by the most violent, the capital annexers.  Meanings are reversed; the formerly invading outsiders become the genteel insiders, the former insiders become marginalized, and are forced to emulate the former outsiders.


===Neural layer===

Neural damage from the continual stress of societal erasure cannot be good; there cannot be any benefit from it despite the adage &quot;what does not kill us makes us stronger.&quot;  An alternate saying was created for the animated series, Eon Flux: &quot;what does not kill us makes us stranger.&quot;  While the results of trauma rarely lead to anti-empathy, though society's doctors have recently started to pretend it does after an eternity of ignoring the psychological effects of trauma, the initial information and other data of the natural community of knowledge will very likely be lost for all time, even if artifacts are preserved.


====Cocaine and methedrine====

Anti-empathic drugs: cocaine, methadrine. 

To relive the pain of trauma drugs are used, and as it happens cocaine instantly relives the pain of the panic disorder suffered by those victimized with trauma, yet cocaine also destroys empathic neuron functionality, adding in recent years to the ironic aspects of the lives of the displaced whose communities of knowledge have been erased.

====Political layer====

In the case of criminals they money they receive gives them unlimited access to destroying drugs helping them continually destroy their empathy, allowing them to be free-er to commit crime.  Lending contraction to politics, or the political layer socially liberal and libertarian are enjoined when they help empower those with terminal emotional communication dysfunction.

===Empathy Acronyms===
*'''E''' Empathy
::Emotional relationships between higher organisms using advance neurons, including communication between higher species
*'''EC''' Emotional Communication
::As differentiated from digital, or optionally genuine, communication
*'''ECD''' Emotional Communication dysfunction (defect, or defective)
::Failure in higher animal communication neurons or neural constructs preventing emotional communication
* '''hECD''' Hybrid Emotional Communiction dysfunction
::Part-time dysfunction that shuts down emotional communication neurons cyclically for days, hours, or minutes
* '''ECDPP''' Emotional Communication dysfunction per population

[[Category:Empathy Models]]</text>
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{{userboxtop}}
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{{userboxbottom}}{{Introduction}}
I'm Atcovi, a member of the English Wikiversity community since January 2011. I currently serve as a [[Wikiversity:Custodianship|custodian]] (since June 2021) and a [[Wikiversity:Bureaucratship|bureaucrat]] (since May 2026). My academic interests mainly lie within [[School:Psychology|psychology]], specifically [[clinical psychology]] (with subfields of interest being [[suicidology|suicide]] and [[General Psychopathology|psychopathology]]).  

My activity is high at the moment but may fluctuate due to life circumstances. Reach out to my talk page for any inquiries. 

===Links===
[[File:Sura Minshawi 2.ogg|thumb|left|[[w:Muhammad_Siddiq_Al-Minshawi|Sheikh Minshawi's]] recitation of Surah Al-Baqara]]
[[File:Notifications-Talk-Indicator-OptionG-OBOD -Screenshot-Closeup-05-01-2013.png|thumb|right|I remember when I used to get these notifications... (2013)]]
I've left an arrangement of random links for me to easily access if I so desire at any given time.  
# [[Help:Project boxes]] - For projects/pages.
# [[Help:Quiz]] - This is also important. 
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3APrefixIndex&amp;prefix=User%3AAtcovi%2F&amp;namespace=0 Pages under &quot;User:Atcovi&quot;] 
# [[Special:CentralAuth/Atcovi]]
# [[:Category:Atcovi's Work]], [[User:Atcovi/Science]] &amp; [[User:Atcovi/History]]
# https://tools.wmflabs.org/meta/crossactivity/Atcovi
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{{Languages and skills|en-N|de-2}}
{{User:Atcovi/to do}}
== Wikiversity's To-do ==
{{Opentask}}
[[File:Flagge Palaestina.jpg|350px|frameless|center]]
[[Category:Wikiversity custodians]]
[[Category:Wikiversity bureaucrats]]
[[Category:User pages]]
[[Category:Atcovi's Work]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>VHDL programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>121359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832587</id>
      <parentid>2832070</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T11:26:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
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      <text bytes="2278" sha1="n888yh68gf9fzi6ujl91b02emqevute" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260908.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832589</id>
      <parentid>2832587</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T11:28:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="si2lklo7aiq4x6kt6b86c1fhxiv1tuw" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260909.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>si2lklo7aiq4x6kt6b86c1fhxiv1tuw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832591</id>
      <parentid>2832589</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T11:37:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
      <origin>2832591</origin>
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      <text bytes="2278" sha1="5tm9nfxnco7tibdiech3gsrwnozof80" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260910.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Universal Bibliography</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Europe */ Add</comment>
      <origin>2832426</origin>
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      <text bytes="52383" sha1="eup5k01nv2xajpis187owkxqkrqnec0" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asia
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

East Asia
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
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      <text bytes="52893" sha1="5jldg9vthnp9236ii4jh8ptu4ybheve" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

East Asia
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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      <text bytes="53228" sha1="cv4nc1w1cwv4chf1o0zr93zxs35ftdn" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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      <text bytes="53542" sha1="225h6rzhcsuhrxd3lpu0lgsoyij00vz" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ]
Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]

*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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      <text bytes="54511" sha1="ljz18emd3hkdr5smo4gy5vt3ai1st0a" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
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{{Bibliography}}
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If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Continents==
*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
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      <text bytes="43983" sha1="i15q9luu7fqih4yhmiuzf4eue9i6q6t" xml:space="preserve">{{Center top}}{{Resize|3em|'''Bibliotheca Universalis'''}}{{Center bottom}}
{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
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{{Bibliography}}
{{research}}

If this resource is ever completed, it will be a universal bibliography.&lt;ref&gt;See [[w:Bibliography]].&lt;/ref&gt; Until then, it will be an approximation of a universal bibliography.

This bibliography is arranged as an index of topics.

==Index==
*[[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Libraries|Libraries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Literature|Literature]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Languages|Languages]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/SF|SF]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Music|Music]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Cinema|Cinema]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Television|Television]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Culture|Culture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Publishers and imprints|Publishers and imprints]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printing|Printing]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Printers|Printers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Microform|Microform]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals|Periodicals]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Reference|Reference]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Gazetteers|Gazetteers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Humanities|Humanities]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Law|Law]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/History|History]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Archaeology|Archaeology]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Continents|Continents]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Countries|Countries]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Architecture]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Mathematics|Mathematics]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Computers|Computers]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Kites|Kites]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia|Nostalgia]]
*[[Universal Bibliography/Children's non-fiction|Children's non-fiction]]

===About===
*[[Universal Bibliography/About|About]]

==Online libraries==
Swedish:
*[[w:Swedish Literature Bank|Litteraturbanken]] (Swedish Literature Bank)
*[[w:Project Runeberg|Projekt Runeberg]] (Project Runeberg)

French
*[[w:Persée (web portal)|Persée]] (persee.fr)

Japanese
*[[w:Aozora Bunko|Aozora Bunko]] (aozora.gr.jp)

==Biographical dictionaries etc==
See [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: general biographies]] and [[w:List of biographical dictionaries]]

*Fox. 'True Biographies of Nations?': The Cultural Journeys of Dictionaries of National Biography. ANU Press. 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=siSbDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Arthur, &quot;Biographical Dictionaries in the Digital Era&quot;. Advancing Digital Humanities: Research, Methods, Theories. 2014. Chapter 6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7MaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA83#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 83] et seq.

Bibliographies, indexes, etc:
*Wynar. ARBA Guide to Biographical Dictionaries. Libraries Unlimited. 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5FfgAAAAMAAJ]
*Slocum, Robert B (ed). Biographical Dictionaries and Related Works. Gale Research Company. 2nd Ed: 1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5uMpAQAAMAAJ]
*Biographical Dictionaries Master Index. (Gale Biographical Index Series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZEshAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pPAzAQAAIAAJ] see also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o_gPAQAAMAAJ]
*Children's Authors and Illustrators: An Index to Biographical Dictionaries. (Gale Biographical Index Series). 2nd Ed: 1978,  3rd Ed: 1981, 4th Ed: 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIsWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DFtGAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=01wjAQAAIAAJ]
*Index to the Wilson Authors Series [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oNZkAAAAMAAJ]
*Auchterlonie. Arabic Biographical Dictionaries: A Summary Guide and Bibliography. 1987 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rW59QgAACAAJ]
*Black Biographical Dictionaries, 1790-1950 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=laIUAQAAMAAJ]

Particular works:

*Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; [[w:Dictionary of National Biography|Dictionary of National Biography]]
*Boase. Modern English Biography. ([http://www.google.com/search?q=editions%3Auzt3-qMuFcMC&amp;btnG=Search+Books&amp;bksoutput=html_text&amp;tbm=bks&amp;tbo=1 editions:uzt3-qMuFcMC])
*A &amp; C Black's Who's Who
*Who Was Who
*The Academic Who's Who. A &amp; C Black. 1st Ed: 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dnUWAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fXJmAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1975. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7VyOANl2qxoC&amp;pg=PA208&amp;output=html_text]. GBooks: editions:INAP7GGD2gYC editions:tA0FkHC75FIC
*Dictionary of Edwardian Biography (Pike's New Century Series)

Works that comprise largely of biographies:
*The Penguin Companion to Literature

Theatres
*A Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers &amp; Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TGgS9VxWJ0oC vol 15]

==Dictionaries of dates==
[https://archive.org/search.php?query=%22dictionary%20of%20dates%22 Archive.org]
*Baxter Dictionary of Dates and Events. 1st Ed: 1963: Napier, M (ed). 2nd Ed: 1971: Sanders and Laffin. Commentary: 92 Library Journal 1819 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CExVAAAAYAAJ]
*Beeching, Cyril Leslie. A Dictionary of Dates. OUP. 1st Ed: 1993. 2nd Ed: 1997. [https://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:UGGp0EexZdcC editions:UGGp0EexZdcC]
*Bolton, John. Bolton's Dictionary of Dates, arranged in alphabetical order. Foulsham. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awJPAAAAIAAJ 172] The Publisher 880
*[[w:William Darling (politician)|William Young Darling]]. A Book of Days: A Dictionary of Dates, a Chronology of Circumstance, the Face of Time. Richards Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PLkfAAAAMAAJ]
*Everyman's Dictionary of Dates. 1st Ed: 1911. 6th Ed: 1971. Review: (1971) 11 RQ 164 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25824440]
*Platt, Charles. Foulsham's Dictionary of Dates and General Information. 1930.
*[[w:Haydn's Dictionary of Dates|Haydn's Dictionary of Dates]]
*Hamlyn Dictionary of Dates and Anniversaries. Newnes Dictionary of Dates.
*Williams, Henry Llewellyn. Hurst's Dictionary of Dates. 1891. [https://archive.org/details/hurstsdictionary00will]
*Keller, Helen Rex. The Dictionary of Dates. Macmillan. 1934. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA93&amp;output=html_text] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA351&amp;output=html_text]
*Nelson's Dictionary of Dates. A Dictionary of Dates. (Nelson's Encyclopaedic Library). 1912 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Mp9lvwEACAAJ]. Reviews: (June 1912) Journal of Education, vol 34 (New Series), vol 44 (Old Series), p 392 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QIRFAQAAMAAJ]; (1912) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9i4_AQAAIAAJ 108] The Spectator [http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/18th-may-1912/25/a-dictionary-of-dates-vol-i-and-english-idioms-nel 805] (18 May)
*Pulman, George Palmer. The World's Progress: A Dictionary of Dates. New York. 1861. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?printsec=frontcover&amp;id=k3dJAAAAYAAJ&amp;output=html]
*Urdang, Laurence. The World Almanac Dictionary of Dates. Longman. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I4IRAQAAMAAJ] Review: (1982) 22 RQ 101 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25826880]

Australia

*John Henniker Heaton. Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 1879. [https://archive.org/details/australiandicti00heatgoog]
*John James Knight. In the Early Days; History and Incident of Pioneer Queensland, with Dictionary of Dates in Chronological Order. Sapsford &amp; Co. Brisbane. 1895.

America

*Damon, Charles Ripley. The American Dictionary of Dates, 458-1920. R G Badger. 1921.

==Commodity dictionaries==
*Statistical Classification of Domestic and Foreign Commodities Exported from the United States. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=91GLhsJSBj8C&amp;pg=PR22#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RPwhAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA15-PA7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tovarnyi slovar'. (Commodity Dictionary). Reviews and commentary: Petrov, &quot;Commodity Dictionary&quot;, Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, No 13, 30 October 1961, p 45; CDSP , 13 December 1961, p 46; (1962) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2vMRAAAAIAAJ 13] Current Digest of the Soviet Press 47; (1958) 15 Quarterly Journal of Current Acquisitions 210 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcvozpZAfpEC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S47qEIfyCr0C]; Fitzpatrick, Stalinism: New Directions, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rD5FzoKnTE0C&amp;pg=PA182#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 182] &amp; 183
*Szilágyi. Commodity Dictionary in Five Languages. Budapest. Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó (Publishing House for Economics and Law). 1963 or 1964. Commentary: Books from Hungary, vols 4-6, pp 26 &amp; 40 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6kMiAQAAMAAJ]
*Dictionnaire des produits: appellations et caractéristiques des produits francais de consommation courante, 1960. Commentary: Walford (ed), Guide to Reference Material Supplement, 1963, p 106 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ej-9pHGR67oC]
*Chūgoku Shōhin Jiten. (Chinese commodity dictionary). Tokyo. 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wc61lS0xj6AC&amp;pg=PA78#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Encyclopedias==
See [[s:Category:Encyclopedias]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias]] and [[w:Lists of encyclopedias]]

*[[w:en:Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
*Paton, John (ed). Knowledge Encyclopedia: 1979, 1981, 1988. New Discovery Encyclopedia: 1990.
*The Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia

==Almanacs==
See [[s:Category:Almanacs]], [[s:Portal:Almanacs]], [[w:List of almanacs]], [[w:Category:Almanacs]].
*Year Book and Almanac of Newfoundland. 
**For 1896. 1895. [https://archive.org/details/yearbooknfld189600newfuoft]
*Whiteley. On This Date: A Day-by-Day Listing of Holidays, Birthday and Historic Events, and Special Days, Weeks and Months. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sKCfomKSa74C]

==Censuses==
*Census of New Zealand and Labrador
**1901 Census. Tables 2 and 3. 1903. [https://archive.org/details/censusnewfoundl00bondgoog]
**1911 Census. Table 1. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/1911981911fnfldv11914eng]
**1921 Census. Tables 4 and 5. 1923. [https://archive.org/details/1921981921fnfldv451923eng]

==Pilot guides==
*[[w:United States Coast Pilot|United States Coast Pilot]]
*American Coast Pilot [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8GoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Sailing Directions: Newfoundland. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=A77fAAAAMAAJ]
*Newfoundland Pilot. Canadian Hydrographic Service. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z7zfAAAAMAAJ]
*Maxwell. The Newfoundland Pilot. Hydrographic Office, Admiralty. London. 1878. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vS4BAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Newfoundland Pilot. HO No 73. Hydrographic Office. Governement Printing Office, Washington. 4th Ed: 1919: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YGoDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Sailing Directions for Newfoundland. 5th Ed: 1931: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUiGo3JK9QC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Books of facts==
*The Reader's Digest Book of Facts. 1st Ed: 1985. Reprinted with amendments: 1987: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B8PmM_5Zm1MC]. (Review: Library Journal, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EPDgAAAAMAAJ v 9], p 102, 1 Dec 1987, [http://www.bookverdict.com/details.xqy?uri=Product-94667328910921.xml Book Verdict].) 3rd Revised Ed: 1995: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E5YhAQAAIAAJ]. GBooks: editions:nnJlLybWxbIC
*Chambers Book of Facts
*Crystal, David (ed). Penguin Book of Facts. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k0sZAQAAIAAJ 2004]. 2nd Ed: 2008
*Handy Book of Facts: Things Everyone Should Know. C.S. Hammond &amp; Company. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h5wRAAAAIAAJ]

==Series of books==
See [[w:Category:Series of books]] and [[w:Category:Monographic series]]
*George M Sinkankas, &quot;Series&quot; in Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds).  Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Volume 27. Marcel Dekker. 1979. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jU3fwyjqS5UC&amp;pg=PA250#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 250] to 273.
*&quot;Publishing in Series, 1896-1916&quot; in Eliot, Simon (ed). History of Oxford University Press. Louis,  Wm Roger (ed). Volume 3: 1896-1970. Oxford University Press. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbcJAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA539#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Page 539] et seq.
*Spiers, John. The Culture of the Publisher’s Series. Palgrave Macmillan. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ASaHDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCl-DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 2].
*Spiers, John. Serious about Series: American 'Cheap' Libraries, British 'Railway' Libraries and Some Literary Series of the 1890's. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1hRXAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AS4yQwAACAAJ]
*Rooney, Paul Raphael. Railway Reading and Late-Victorian Literary Series. Routledge. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uX5aDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Khan. &quot;Monographs in series&quot;. The Principles and Practice of Library Science. 1996. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sAHfY6QbOEwC&amp;pg=PA208#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 207] to 209.
*Friskney. New Canadian Library: The Ross-McClelland Years, 1952-1978. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jHIjCCXBX9kC&amp;pg=PA6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 6] and 7.

*Books in Series. R R Bowker Company. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQe04OSlA7YC&amp;pg=PA11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. R R Bowker. 1977. Review: (1977) 14 Choice [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_e08AQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1190#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1190] (No 8, November). Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LYAhAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
***Books in Series Supplement: A Supplement to Books in Series in the United States, 1966-1975. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hOAaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series. 3rd Ed. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d_kaAQAAMAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1876-1949. R R Bowker Company. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TngvAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVIyAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R2AjAQAAIAAJ]
**Books in Series, 1985-89. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yEkxAQAAIAAJ]
*Baer, Eleanora Agnes. Titles in Series: A Handbook for Librarians and Students. Scarecrow Press. Vol 1 (Books Published Prior to January 1953). 1953: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgAYAAAAMAAJ]. Vol 2 (Books Published Prior to January 1957). 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oqsXAAAAMAAJ]
**2nd Ed: 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWlAAAAAIAAJ Vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tWpAAAAAIAAJ Vol 2]. Supplement to the Second Edition. 1967: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zGARAQAAMAAJ]. Second Supplement to the Second Edition. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WwXhAAAAMAAJ]
**3rd Ed: 1978. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA63#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ocran, Emmanuel Benjamin. Scientific &amp; Technical Series: A Select Bibliography. 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oy0EAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTCw_DQH6zkC&amp;pg=PA949#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Rosenberg and Nichols. Young People's Books in Series: Fiction and Non-fiction, 1975-1991. Libraries Unlimited. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REHhAAAAMAAJ]
*Young People's Literature in Series

*Catalog of Reprints in Series. (sometimes called &quot;Catalogue of Reprints in Series&quot;). 1940 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MSI4AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6n1EAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA73#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1RxuAAAAMAAJ]

*Kuitert, Lisa. Het ene boek in vele delen. De Uitgave van Literaire Series in Nederland 1850-1900. Uitgeverij de Buitenkant. Amsterdam. 1993. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSDnRo7YrWwC&amp;pg=PA656#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=szBcAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SVcVAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R8Pfs146nUAC&amp;pg=PA367#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Series of classics==
*Penguin Classics (Penguin Modern Classics, Penguin English Library)
*Oxford World Classics
*Everyman's Library
*Wordsworth Classics
*Macmillan Collectors Library
*Bantam Classics
*Minster Classics
*The Literary Heritage Collection (Heron Books, London. William Collins Sons &amp; Co, Glasgow)
*Chandos Classics
*Temple Classics
*Longmans Heritage of Literature Series

Russian
*Greatest Masterpieces of Russian Literature (Heron Books, London)

SF
*Corgi SF Collectors Library

Children's and shorter classics etc 
*Shorter Classics. Ginn and Company.
*Ladybird Children's Classics.
*Mini Classics. Parragon Books.
*Bonny Books. Peter Haddock Ltd.
*A series published by Dean &amp; Son Ltd

==Non-fiction general series==
*[[w:Oxford Companions|Oxford Companions]]
*[[w:Cambridge Companions|Cambridge Companions]]
*Princeton Companions
*Blackwell Companions. Wiley Blackwell Companions
*Routledge Companions. Routledge Research Companions
*Ashgate Companions. Ashgate Research Companions
*Brill's Companions
*Facts on File Companions
*Guides to Information Sources. Bowker-Saur
*Butterworths Guides to Information Sources.
*Columbia Guides
*Blackwell Guides
*Edinburgh Critical Guides
*Collins Reference Dictionaries
*New Horizons. Thames and Hudson. ([[w:Découvertes Gallimard|Découvertes Gallimard]])
*Collins Gem (see [[w:List of Collins GEM books]])
*Concise Encyclopedias. Collins.
*Time Life Books (see [[w:Time Life#Book series]])
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. English Universities Press. 
*[[w:Teach Yourself|Teach Yourself Books]]. Hodder and Stoughton.
*Made Simple Books. W H Allen.
*Palgrave Master Series
*Harrap's Mini Series
*Shire Albums. Shire Publications.
*Fax Pax: Knowledge in a Nutshell. Fax Pax Ltd.
*The Wonderful World Books. Macdonald and Company
*Harper's ABC series. Includes A-B-C of Housekeeping, A-B-C of Electricity, A-B-C of Gardening and A-B-C of Manners.
*Hamlyn Pocket Guides
*Oxford Monograph Series
*Study Outline Series. H W Wilson. [[s:Page:Russian Literature - A Study Outline.djvu/61|(wikisource)]]
*Helpmate Handbooks. Willow Books

University
*University Paperbacks. Meuthen &amp; Co
*World Student Series. Addison Wesley
*Unibooks. Hodder and Stoughton
*International Student Editions. Van Nostrand Reinhold
*Hutchinson University Library

Imprints
*Pelican Books

Pictorials
*Salmon Cameracolour series
*Pitkin Pictorials 

United Kingdom
*Aspects of Britain. HMSO.

Places
*The Little Guides. Meuthen [[s:Page:Cornwall (Salmon).djvu/336|(wikisource)]]
*G.W.R. Series of Travel Books [[s:Page:The Cornwall coast.djvu/391|(wikisource)]]

Art
*Movements in World Art. Meuthen.
*Movements in Modern Art. Meuthen.
*How to Draw and Paint. New Burlington.

Film
*BFI Companions

Popular science
*Contemporary Science Paperbacks. Oliver and Boyd.
*Pan Piper Science Series

Science and mathematics
*Simon and Schuster Tech Outlines
*Schaum's Outline Series

Military
*Illustrated Military Guides. Illustrated Guides. &quot;An Illustrated Guide to ...&quot;. Salamander Books.
*Combat Arms. Arco Military Books. Salamander Books. Prentice Hall Press.
*Osprey Men-at-Arms
*Jane's Pocket Books

Communication
*The Library of Communication Techniques. Focal Press.
*John Fiske (ed). Studies in Culture and Communication. Routledge.
*The Media. Wayland.

Cookery
*ABC series. Peter Pauper Press.

Gardening
*Pan Piper Small Gardens Series.

Mythology
*Series on mythology published by Southwater (imprint of Anness)

==History and Geography==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History|History]] and [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].
*Baker. Geography and History: Bridging the Divide. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e8yf5JcefpAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Darby. Relations of History and Geography: Studies in England, France and the United States. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vl4ZfpnP7NwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General series
*Cambridge Studies in Historical Geography

Atlases
*The Times Atlas of World History
*Philip's Atlas of World History

History of geography:
*Dunbar, Gary S. The History of Modern Geography: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Works. Garland. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX4WAQAAIAAJ]

==Chronology==
See also [[Universal Bibliography/History#Millennia, centuries and decades]]

General
*Chronology of World History.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Modern World: 1763 to the present time. 1st Ed: 1966. (1763 to 1992). 2nd Ed: 1994.
**Neville Williams. Chronology of the Expanding World 1492 to 1762. 1969. Reissued 1994.
**Storey. Chronology of the Medieval World 800 to 1491. 1973. Reissued 1994.
**Mellersh. Chronology of the Ancient World 10,000 BC to AD 799. Barrie and Jenkins. 1976. Helicon. Simon &amp; Schuster. Reissued 1994.

Centuries
*Chronology of the 20th Century. Helicon. 1995. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pjsOAQAAMAAJ]
*Brownstone and Franck. Timelines of the 20th Century. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IZ6SQgAACAAJ]
*Beal. 20th Century Timeline. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=cFrG7LBObGoC]
*20th Century Day by Day [https://books.google.com/books?id=kyxaAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=WiOAAAAACAAJ]
*Chronicle of the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pt3DYbnZO8sC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Gd1WPQAACAAJ]
*Boyle. The Chronology of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1826. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDENAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Decades
*Series:
**Day by Day. Facts on File. [https://books.google.com/books?id=WfClvwEACAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=CWNvQgAACAAJ]

Years
*Brown, D Kinnear. History of the Year. (1884 to 1885). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DmRWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA113#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Catalogue].
*The History of the Year: A Narrative of the Chief Events and Topics of Interest. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ljgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1881 to 1882]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1DgIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1882 to 1883].
*James Mason. The History of the Year 1876. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6DoIAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:The Annual Register|The Annual Register]]. [A View of the History Politics and Literature of the Year YYYY.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SrJNAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 1821].
*Giusto Traina. 428AD: An Ordinary Year at the End of the Roman Empire. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gLumDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Ancient
*Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 1968.
*Smithsonian Timelines of the Ancient World: A Visual Chronology from the Origins of Life. Dorling Kindersley. 1st American Ed: 1993.

==Anniversaries==
*Sian Facer (ed). On this Day: The History of the World in 366 Days. Octopus Illustrated Publishing, London. Crescent Books, New York and Avenel. 1992: [https://books.google.com/books?id=SYGQgwHTuE0C]. Other: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W687MAEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7ujArQEACAAJ]
*On this Day: A History of the World in 366 Days. DK. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=x4I5EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Egyptology==
*Annual Egyptological Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8MoUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-eUUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Battlefields==
*[[w:War Walks|War Walks]]. BBC2. 1996 to 1997. [Television series]
*&quot;The Times Guide to Battlefields of Britain&quot;. Day 1: The Times, 1 August 1994, p 8. Day 2: The Times, 2 August 1994, p 8. Day 3: The Times, 3 August 1994, p 6. Day 4: The Times, 4 August 1994, p 9. Day 5: The Times, 5 August 1994, p 9. Day 6: The Times, 6 August 1994, p 6. There was also a colour wall chart.

==Armed forces==
Periodicals:
*[[w:NATO Review|NATO Review]]

Military
*The Journal of Military History

*Journal of the Royal United Service Institution [Google editions:lMJAgUvBWAEC editions:dcFNqS8JFjoC]

*The Monthly Army List [Google editions:I0t2L4ElznEC]
*The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal [Google editions:c7UjQ-q7SbUC]

*Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research [Google editions:9HZkbMTl6mcC]

*The Royal Armoured Corps Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:dEauCcI7kssC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Royal Tank Corps Journal
*The Tank [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:Dv-RbpoM7acC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5#ip=1] Editorial office at the Royal Tank Regiment
*The Cavalry Journal [https://www.google.com/search?sa=N&amp;cs=0&amp;tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:cVQlfkRl6KUC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=688&amp;dpr=1.5#sbfbu=1]
*The Journal of the Royal Artillery [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:liFy4uc0ggYC&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Minutes of Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution [Google editions:wdjZ588FbtMC]
*The Royal Engineers Journal [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&amp;q=editions:8XobinXLbD0C&amp;biw=534&amp;bih=736&amp;dpr=1.5]
*Journal of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers [https://books.google.com/books?id=dz0cmA1jnv4C]
*Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps [Google editions:FyUJx2dEWcQC]

United States
*Military Review
*The Coast Artillery Journal [Google editions:nMCogSJ_rlkC]
*Infantry Journal [Google editions:ULqoLmbUR5cC]
*The Reserve Officer [Google editions:JQDRDrnD1QQC]

Naval
*[[w:Navy News|Navy News]]

==Armour==
Armoured warfare; tank warfare
*Harris and Toase. Armoured Warfare. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYPfAAAAMAAJ]
*Carver. The Apostles of Mobility: The Theory and Practice of Armoured Warfare. 1979. [https://books.google.com/books?id=8qcgAAAAMAAJ]
*Fuller. Armoured Warfare: An Annotated Edition of Fifteen Lectures on Operations between Mechanized Forces. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2E4tAQAAMAAJ]
*Black. Tank Warfare. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oFP5DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jorgensen and Mann. Tank Warfare. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0AghAQAAIAAJ]
*Searle. Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HN4CDgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Willey. Tanks: The History of Armoured Warfare. 2018. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AXTltAEACAAJ]
*Perrett. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare Case Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pKGyeWqJcCEC]. Iron Fist: Classic Armoured Warfare. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KKcKI4dG0VUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Tom Clancy. Armoured Warfare: Guided Tour of an Armoured Cavalry Regiment. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UxhONAAACAAJ]

Atlas
*Stephen Hart (ed). Atlas of Armored Warfare: From 1916 to the Present Day. Metro Books. 2012. [https://search.worldcat.org/title/1391166759]. Atlas of Tank Warfare. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWqppwAACAAJ]

Armored forces
*Ogorkiewicz. Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and Their Vehicles. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIHfAAAAMAAJ]

==Mesoamerica==
*James. Aztecs &amp; Maya: The Ancient Peoples of Middle America. Tempus. 2001. 2005. History Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOXNhTY6TCYC 2009]. Reviews: &quot;Books Received&quot; (2003) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3dozAQAAIAAJ 14] Minerva 57 (No 1); and &quot;Overviews for the general reader&quot; (2002) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qShmAAAAMAAJ 76] Antiquity 252.
*Weaver. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mQkAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.com/books?id=OWQkAQAAIAAJ]

==Accounting==
See [[s:Category:Accounting]]

Periodicals
*[[s:The Accountant|The Accountant]] (1874 onwards)
*Accountant's Magazine (1897 onwards) Aberdeen

==Arts==
*Murray (ed).The Hutchinson Dictionary of the Arts. Helicon Publishing. 1994. Paperback Ed: 1995. Reprinted 1997.

==Biography==
*Parke. Biography: Writing Lives. 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6bAz2K98MeYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Caine. Biography and History. (Theory and History). 1st Ed: 2010, 2nd Ed: 2019 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h3dvDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Biography. Biography: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly. 1978 onwards. Published by the University Press of Hawaii for the Biographical Research Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s84ZAAAAYAAJ]
*Biography News. 1974 to 1975. Gale Research Company. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RRsXAQAAIAAJ]

Yearbooks
*Current Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=Zcml63jalMIC]
*Dictionary of Literary Biography Yearbook [https://books.google.com/books?id=gNNlAAAAMAAJ]

==Information technology==
*Haynes, David (ed). Information Sources in Information Technology. (Guides to Information Sources). Bowker Saur. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0hYjAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Economics==
General series:
*Dryden Press Series in Economics
*Hurl, Bryan (ed). Studies in the UK Economy. Heinemann Educational
*Nuffield Economics &amp; Business. Nuffield Foundation. Longman.

Other:
*Bannock, Baxter and Davis. The Penguin Dictionary of Economics. Penguin Books. 4th Ed: 1987. Bannock, Baxter and Rees. 1972. 2nd Ed: 1978. 3rd Ed: 1984.

*Begg, Fischer and Dornbusch. Economics. McGraw Hill. 1984. 2nd Ed: 1987. 3rd Ed: 1991.
*Anderton, Alain. Economics. Causeway Press. 1991.
*Maile, Roger. Economics. (Core Business Studies). Mitchell Beazly. 1983.
*Maunder, Myers, Wall and Miller. Economics Explained. Collins Educational. 1987. 2nd Ed: 1991.
*Tibbitt, Andrew. A guide to A Level Economics. Thomas Nelson and Sons. 1986.

*Lipsey, Richard G. An Introduction to Positive Economics. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1963. 2nd Ed: 1966. 3rd Ed: 1971. 4th Ed: 1975. 5th Ed: 1979. 6th Ed: 1983. 7th Ed: 1989.

*Nicolson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. (Dryden Press Series in Economics). Dryden Press, Holt-Saunders. 3rd Ed: 1985. 

*Caves and Jones. World Trade and Payments: An Introduction. Little, Brown and Company. 1973. 1977. 3rd Ed: 1981.

*National Institute of Economic and Social Research. The UK economy. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1990.
*Smith, Charles. UK trade and sterling. (Studies in the UK Economy). Heinemann Educational. 1992.

==Games==
Chess
*Hooper and Whyld. The Oxford Companion to Chess. Oxford University Press. 1984. Paperback: 1987.
*Golombek, Harry. The Game of Chess. 1954. 2nd Ed: 1963. 3rd Ed: 1980.
*Pritchard, D. Brine. The Right Way to Play Chess. 1950. 8th Ed: 1971. 10th Ed: 1974. 11th Ed: 1977.
*Horowitz, Al. From Morphy to Fischer: A history of the World Chess Championship. B T Batsford. 1973. The World Chess Championship: A History. Macmillan. 1973. 

General series
*Batsford Chess Books
**Discovering Chess Series. B T Batsford.

Periodicals

See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Chess|Periodicals, Chess]]
*British Chess Magazine

Othello
*Goro Hasegawa with Maxine Brady. How to Win at Othello. (A Harvest/HBJ book). Jove Publications. 1977. ISBN 0-15-642215-8. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mTdhlwVeyCcC]

Wargames
*Battleground. Tyne Tees. (ITV). 1978. [Television]. 6 episodes, with Edward Woodward.
**Laurie Taylor. &quot;Attila the Hun invades Tyne Tees&quot;. TV Times. 1978. pp 28 &amp; 29.
**Terry Wise. &quot;Battleground&quot;. Battle for Wargamers. June 1978. pp 261 &amp; 262.
*[[w:Game of War|Game of War]]. Channel 4. 1997. [Television].

==Toys==
Periodicals
*Games &amp; Toys: The Leading Trade Journal for Home &amp; Export. (H Richard Simmons Limited). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pMmbZ_JTnXYC] Google: editions:UO8GID_4Ck0C
*Toys and Novelties. (Sporting Goods Pub Co). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zKdAAQAAMAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-9-1913/page/n53/mode/1up] (Toys and Novelties Publishing Company) [https://archive.org/details/toys-and-novelties-volume-19-issue-no.-1-6-january-june-1922/page/n173/mode/1up]. Cf. &quot;Harcourt To Buy Journals From Haire Publishing Co&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=J7hEAQAAIAAJ 194] Publishers Weekly 29
*[[w:Playthings (magazine)|Playthings: The National Magazine of the Toy Trade]]. (McCready Publishing Co) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eCQHzuYWDY4C] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mnRO5WFXDfEC]. (Geyer-McAllister Publications). Cf. &quot;Playthings bought by Geyer-McAllister&quot; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=itAaAQAAMAAJ 52] Industrial Marketing

==Cricket==
See [[w:Bibliography of cricket]]

*Peter Arnold and Peter Wynne-Thomas. The Complete Encyclopedia of Cricket. 2006. 4th Ed: 2011: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2R_pXwAACAAJ].
**Peter Arnold. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket.
*Morgan. The Encyclopedia of World Cricket. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gFCbkgEACAAJ]

Scores and biographies
*Marylebone Club Cricket Scores and Biographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dl8IAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**See [[w:Arthur Haygarth]] and [[w:Fred Lillywhite]]

Periodicals
*[[w:Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game|Cricket: A Weekly Record of the Game]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eX9QAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

Australia
*Malcolm Andrews. The Encyclopaedia of Australian Cricket. 1980. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1531463]
*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket

India 
*The Encyclopaedia of Indian Cricket, 1965. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CE4Joad6iwAC] [Includes biographies]

Annuals
*[[w:Indian Cricket (annual)|Indian Cricket]].  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ioRLAAAAYAAJ 1966].

===Cricketers===
Cricketers, including biographical dictionaries and collections of biographies
*[[w:ESPNcricinfo|ESPNcricinfo]]
*[[w:CricketArchive|CricketArchive]]

*John Arlott's Book of Cricketers. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8-WBAAAAMAAJ]

*World Cricketers: A Biographical Dictionary [https://books.google.com/books?id=IpBLAAAAYAAJ]
*Carr's Dictionary of Extraordinary Cricketers. 1977. Aurum Press. 2005. [https://books.google.com/books?id=CfwsAAAACAAJ]

*Sproat. Debrett's Cricketers' Who's Who. 1980.
*S Canynge Caple. The Cricketer's Who's Who. Williams. Lincoln. 1934.
*Cricket Who's Who: The Cricket Blue Book. 1909. [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/119715]. 1912. Bibliography: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IjQyAQAAMAAJ]

*Who's Who in Test Cricket: A Biographical Dictionary of Test Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=5uF5PQAACAAJ]

*Frindall. England Test Cricketers: The Complete Record from 1877. 1989. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHYLIW7h9UC]
*Brooke. The Collins Who's Who of English First-Class Cricket, 1945-1984. 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=NGSPAAAACAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iHMsAAAAYAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wPg5AQAAIAAJ]

Gloucestershire
*Gloucestershire Cricketers, 1870-1979. (ACS Cricketers Series [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/index.html]). The Association of Cricket Statisticians. Cleethorpes. 1979. [https://archive.acscricket.com/cricketers_series/gloucestershire_cricketers_1870-1979/index.html]
*Rex Pogson. Gloucestershire Cricket and Cricketers, 1919-1939. Lytham St Annes. 1944. Catalogues: [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/850643] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CS83vXlB1ZIC] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/504354999]. Also printed as microfilm: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iqXeDTKUEl4C].
*Dean Hayes. Gloucestershire Cricketing Greats: 46 of the Best Cricketers for Gloucestershire. Tunbridge Wells. 1990. Catalogues: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OmsqAQAAIAAJ] [https://www.worldcat.org/title/25202795]

Australia
*The A-Z of Australian Cricketers [https://books.google.com/books?id=w-0zAAAACAAJ]
*Piesse. Encyclopedia of Australian Cricket Players. 2012. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsh4MAEACAAJ]
*C P Moody. Australian Cricket and Cricketers 1856-1893-4. Melbourne. 1894.
*Jack Pollard. Australian Cricket: The Game and the Players. Hodder and Stoughton. ABC Books. Sydney. Lane Cove, New South Wales. 1982. Angus &amp; Robertson. London. North Ryde, New South Wales. Sydney. Revised Ed: 1988. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WotYAAAAYAAJ]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KzNYAAAAMAAJ].

==Geology==
*Read and Watson. Introduction to Geology. Macmillan Education. 1962. 2nd Ed: 1968. Volume 1: Principles. Volume 2: Earth History.

==Mineralogy==
*Bibliography of Mineralogy for 1886. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. Year Ending 30 June 1887. 1889. Pages [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wDcWAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA473#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 473] to 476.

*Battey, Maurice Hugh. Mineralogy for students. Oliver &amp; Boyd. 1972. 2nd Ed. Longman. 1981.

==Paper==
See [[s:Category:Paper]]

*Surface. Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service. Bulletin 123. 1913. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofpu12surf]
*West. Reading List on Papermaking Materials. 1920 to 1921. [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa00westgoog] [https://archive.org/details/readinglistonpa01westgoog]

==Books==
*British Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oFTAAAAIAAJ]
*Australasian Book News and Literary Journal. Australasian Book News and Library Journal. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QVQPAQAAIAAJ]

*Book News. 1882 to 1918. (John Wanamaker). Called &quot;Book News Monthly&quot; from 1906. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtwRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Stechert-Hafner Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BmDqAAAAMAAJ]
*U.S.A. Book News [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=36gVAQAAIAAJ]
*Branch Library Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NM8aAAAAMAAJ]

*Hungarian Book Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6U85AQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Book News. (Earl Browder). 1947 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QrXQ6LYSOF4C]

*Miniature Book News. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MascAQAAMAAJ]

Rare
*Berger. Rare Books and Special Collections. American Library Association. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFUangEACAAJ]

Printed
*Annual Bibliography of the History of the Printed Book and Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GLigoebhrd8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 30] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UBN-IUZlF4gC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 31]

==Paperback and Paperbound==
*Swados, &quot;Paper Books: What do they Promise?&quot; (1953) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TwaJtQzwj1gC 173] The Nation 114
*Wagman, &quot;The Paperbound Book Business&quot; (1957) 9 Michigan Business Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9pA8uolQjnkC&amp;pg=RA4-PA9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 9] (No 5, November)

==Science==
*Lafferty and Rowe. The Hutchinson Dictionary of Science. Helicon Publishing. 1993. 2nd Ed: 1998.

==Entertainment==
*The Directory (The Times, 1996 onwards) Commentary: [https://www.marketingweek.com/as-times-starts-listings-supplement/]

==Comedy and tragedy==
*E H Mikhail. Comedy and Tragedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5bgEAAAAMAAJ]

===Comedy===
*James E Evans. Comedy: An Annotated Bibliography of Theory and Criticism. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s9ZgthAs1t8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Meghan Duffy (ed). Daniel Gerould (senior ed). Comedy: A Bibliography of Critical Studies in English on the Theory and Practice of Comedy in Drama, Theatre, and Performance. New York. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fI0jAQAAIAAJ]
*David Humphrey. The Time of Laughter: Comedy and the Media Cultures of Japan. University of Michigan Press. 2023. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CkTLEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Radio and television==
*William E McCavitt. Radio and Television: A Selected Annotated Bibliography. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DAQVAQAAIAAJ]
*Gertrude G Broderick. Radio and Television Bibliography. Bulletin 1948 No 17. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yIPP1dsmNtAC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Patricia Beall Hamill. Radio and Television: A Selected Bibliography. Bulletin 1960 No 25. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AJhGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Film and television==
*Jean Mitry. Bibliographie internationale du cinéma et de la télévision. 1966 onwards. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SC3gAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: A Reference Guide for English Studies, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h_wfYKnMfOkC&amp;pg=PA439#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 439].

==Animation==
*John Halas and Roger Manvell. The Technique of Film Animation. 4th Ed: 1976. Focal Press. ISBN 0240509005.
*Clements and McCarthy. The Anime Encyclopedia. 3rd Rev Ed: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=E03KBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1958#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

==Colours==
*Eiseman and Recker. Pantone: The 20th Century in Color. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j3H7nSVS3UMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Reviews: [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/13/pantone-20th-century-color-review][https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2011/11/pantone-100-years-of-color/249016/][https://eu.vvdailypress.com/story/lifestyle/health-fitness/2012/01/16/color-reel-20th-century-s/37119883007/]

==Bilateral==
Britain and Japan
*Pearse. Companion to Japanese Britain and Ireland. In Print. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KtAxAAAAIAAJ]

==Prehistoric life==
Prehistoric animals
*[[w:Michael Benton|Michael Benton]]. Prehistoric Animals: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1989. Derrydale Books, New York. 1989. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]
*Ellis Owen. Prehistoric Animals: The Extraordinary Story of Life before Man. Octopus Books Limited. London. 1975. [Sculptures: Arthur Hayward.] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=II-B8R-8Ov8C 17] Wildlife 422. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aUbYAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA269#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jFNBAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=PA5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Prehistorische dieren: de geschiedenis van het leven vóór de mens. Translated by JJ Hoedeman. In den Toren, Baarn. Westland, Schoten. 1977.  Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ToVMAQAAIAAJ]
**Les Animaux préhistoriques: l'extraordinaire histoire de la vie avant l'homme.

Dinosaurs
*Michael Benton. Dinosaurs: An A-Z Guide. Kingfisher Books. 1988. Derrydale Books, New York. 1988. [Illustrations: Jim Channell and Kevin Maddison.]

==Regions and other places==
*JD Pearson. Oriental and Asian Bibliography: An Introduction with Some Reference to Africa. Archon Books. [https://books.google.com/books?id=P18ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Theodore Besterman. A World Bibliography of Oriental Bibliographies. Revised by JD Pearson. Rowman and Littlefield. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dvnfAAAAMAAJ]

==Culture and society==
*Victoria Lyon Bestor, Theodore C Bestor and Akiko Yamagata (eds). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cBYffHp5L4C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Josef Kreiner and Hans-Dieter Ölschleger (eds). Japanese Culture and Society: Models of Interpretation. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6skwAQAAIAAJ]
*Dolores P Martinez. Modern Japanese Culture and Society. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l6kMAQAAMAAJ vol 1]
*C Andrew Gerstle. 18th Century Japan: Culture and Society. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ViglDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*Review of Japanese Culture and Society [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W_o-AQAAIAAJ]

==See also==
*[[Bibliography]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
{{subpagesif}}
[[Category:Bibliographies]]
[[Category:Research]]</text>
      <sha1>fs55s29f8u32u8wdnar6jzzpxpby8ff</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation</title>
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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-regulation]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming in plain view</title>
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      <id>2832439</id>
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      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
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==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260908.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>lgvunez25uk4hgema2zoq31cxt9v6ps</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832441</id>
      <parentid>2832439</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T18:21:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lambda Calculus */</comment>
      <origin>2832441</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6273" sha1="31oq16il7h4l5qncbguplxvnaptodqd" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;


==Types==
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
* Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
* Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])

==Functions==
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])

==Expressions==
* Expressions I ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions II ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
* Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Lambda Calculus==
* Lambda Calculus - informal description ([[Media:LCal.1A.informal.20220831.pdf |pdf]])
* Lambda Calculus - Formal definition ([[Media:LCal.2A.formal.20221015.pdf |pdf]])
* Expression Reduction ([[Media:LCal.3A.reduction.20220920.pdf |pdf]])
* Normal Forms ([[Media:LCal.4A.Normal.20220903.pdf |pdf]])
* Encoding Datatypes 
:- Church Numerals ([[Media:LCal.5A.Numeral.20230627.pdf |pdf]])
:- Church Booleans ([[Media:LCal.6A.Boolean.20230815.pdf |pdf]])
:- Functions ([[Media:LCal.7A.Function.20231230.pdf |pdf]])
:- Combinators ([[Media:LCal.8A.Combinator.20241202.pdf |pdf]])
:- Recursions ([[Media:LCal.9A.Recursion.20260909.pdf |A]], [[Media:LCal.9B.Recursion.20260330.pdf |B]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Haskell|programming in plain view]]</text>
      <sha1>31oq16il7h4l5qncbguplxvnaptodqd</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Michael Ten/Later</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>215188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832549</id>
      <parentid>2832400</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T04:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Ten</username>
        <id>654933</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Some ideas to explore or elaborate on later */ * [[Procedural generation]]</comment>
      <origin>2832549</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3981" sha1="4dneg3a7akgy6a20n85z0r206i16zax" xml:space="preserve">Ideas to possibly develop or integrate into various areas later. 
==Some ideas to explore or elaborate on later==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Python]]
* [[Business/Earning money]]
* [[National University of Singapore]]
* [[Peking University]]
* [[Tsinghua University]]
* [[Archaeology of Specific Peoples and Civilizations]]
* [[Syllabi]]
* [[Teaching]]
* [[Analyzing research]]
* [[Research analysis]]
* [[Research studies]]
* [[Courses]]
* [[Nano bots]]
* [[Learning]]
* [[Statistical analysis]]
* [[Peer to peer]]
* [[p2p]] / [[P2P]]
* [[Mesh networks]]
* [[Permissionless software]]
* [[CI/DC]]
* [[Coolify]]
* [[Prompts]]
* [[Agentic AI]]
* [[AI research]]
* [[Knowledge graph]]
* [[Loop engineering]]
* [[Graph engineering]]
* [[Vibe coding]]
* [[Agentic loops]]
* [[Agentic graphs]]
* [[Node-based visual system]]
* [[Agents in node graphs]]
* [[Graph theory architecture]]
* [[n8n for learning]]
* [[n8n for research]]
* [[Flow-based data pipeline]]
* [[Directed acyclic graph]]
* [[Research with AI]]
* [[Procedural generation]]
* [[Becoming a lawyer]]
{{colend}}

==Some more - diversity of thought ==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Diversity of thought]]
* [[w:Diversity ideologies|Diversity ideologies]]
* [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]]
* [[w:Diversity (business)|Diversity (business)]]
* [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]]
* [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]]
* [[w:Neurodiversity|Neurodiversity]]
* [[w:Diversity (politics)|Diversity (politics)]]
* [[w:Unity in diversity|Unity in diversity]]
* [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]]
* [[w:Gender diversity|Gender diversity]]
* [[w:Multicultural and diversity management|Multicultural and diversity management]]
* [[w:Team diversity|Team diversity]]
{{colend}}

===External===
{{colbegin|2}}
* [https://mtprof.msun.edu/Spr2007/fish.html Intellectual Diversity: What Is It and Do We Need It?]
* [https://roth.blogs.wesleyan.edu/tag/intellectual-diversity/ Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://tigerlearn.fhsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/Intellectual-Diversity-in-HE.pdf Intellectual Diversity in Higher Education]
* [https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2023/12/20/free-speech-and-intellectual-diversity/ Free Speech and Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://itsapps.odu.edu/ao/facultyhandbook/index.php?page=ch02s48.html Resolution Supporting Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/exec-ed/difference/cognitive-diversity Cognitive Diversity: Know How to Harness It — And When to Rein It In — To Help Your Team Succeed]
* [https://online.merrimack.edu/cognitive-diversity-in-education/ Cognitive Diversity in Education]
* [https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/scottepage/research-2/diversity-research/ Diversity Research]
* [https://www.chapman.edu/diversity/news-and-events/cognitive-diversity/index.aspx Cognitive Diversity: Embracing Difference]
* [https://scholarworks.uttyler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&amp;context=hrd_grad Enhancing the Cohesiveness of a Cognitive Diverse Team: the Role of Leadership]
* [https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI30505255/ Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams]
** [https://www.proquest.com/docview/2838332291 Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams]
* [https://cache.kzoo.edu/items/195fd798-9778-48f1-9fc5-d6c1dc47cec5 Modeling Cognitive Diversity]
* [https://jme.bmj.com/content/44/11/751 Artificial womb technology and the frontiers of human reproduction: conceptual differences and potential implications]
{{colend}}

== More later ==

* [[Computational mathematics]]

&quot;Agents Navier–Stokes math solve&quot; (search term, without quotes)

A distributed network of 10,000 agents (?) resolved the historic Navier–Stokes Millennium Prize problem in just under four days. By consuming 130 billion generated tokens across an 88 computational hours, the coordinated agent collective cracked one of the most stubborn enigmas in modern mathematics.</text>
      <sha1>4dneg3a7akgy6a20n85z0r206i16zax</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832557</id>
      <parentid>2832549</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T05:21:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Ten</username>
        <id>654933</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832557</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4014" sha1="s754iqp5ij8ebghork8n7ixlm8e3dq3" xml:space="preserve">Ideas to possibly develop or integrate into various areas later. 
==Some ideas to explore or elaborate on later==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Python]]
* [[Business/Earning money]]
* [[National University of Singapore]]
* [[Peking University]]
* [[Tsinghua University]]
* [[Archaeology of Specific Peoples and Civilizations]]
* [[Syllabi]]
* [[Teaching]]
* [[Analyzing research]]
* [[Research analysis]]
* [[Research studies]]
* [[Courses]]
* [[Nano bots]]
* [[Learning]]
* [[Statistical analysis]]
* [[Peer to peer]]
* [[p2p]] / [[P2P]]
* [[Mesh networks]]
* [[Permissionless software]]
* [[CI/DC]]
* [[Coolify]]
* [[Prompts]]
* [[Agentic AI]]
* [[AI research]]
* [[Knowledge graph]]
* [[Loop engineering]]
* [[Graph engineering]]
* [[Vibe coding]]
* [[Agentic loops]]
* [[Agentic graphs]]
* [[Node-based visual system]]
* [[Agents in node graphs]]
* [[Graph theory architecture]]
* [[n8n for learning]]
* [[n8n for research]]
* [[Flow-based data pipeline]]
* [[Directed acyclic graph]]
* [[Research with AI]]
* [[Entrepreneurial psychology]]
* [[Procedural generation]]
* [[Becoming a lawyer]]
{{colend}}

==Some more - diversity of thought ==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Diversity of thought]]
* [[w:Diversity ideologies|Diversity ideologies]]
* [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]]
* [[w:Diversity (business)|Diversity (business)]]
* [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]]
* [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]]
* [[w:Neurodiversity|Neurodiversity]]
* [[w:Diversity (politics)|Diversity (politics)]]
* [[w:Unity in diversity|Unity in diversity]]
* [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]]
* [[w:Gender diversity|Gender diversity]]
* [[w:Multicultural and diversity management|Multicultural and diversity management]]
* [[w:Team diversity|Team diversity]]
{{colend}}

===External===
{{colbegin|2}}
* [https://mtprof.msun.edu/Spr2007/fish.html Intellectual Diversity: What Is It and Do We Need It?]
* [https://roth.blogs.wesleyan.edu/tag/intellectual-diversity/ Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://tigerlearn.fhsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/Intellectual-Diversity-in-HE.pdf Intellectual Diversity in Higher Education]
* [https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2023/12/20/free-speech-and-intellectual-diversity/ Free Speech and Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://itsapps.odu.edu/ao/facultyhandbook/index.php?page=ch02s48.html Resolution Supporting Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/exec-ed/difference/cognitive-diversity Cognitive Diversity: Know How to Harness It — And When to Rein It In — To Help Your Team Succeed]
* [https://online.merrimack.edu/cognitive-diversity-in-education/ Cognitive Diversity in Education]
* [https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/scottepage/research-2/diversity-research/ Diversity Research]
* [https://www.chapman.edu/diversity/news-and-events/cognitive-diversity/index.aspx Cognitive Diversity: Embracing Difference]
* [https://scholarworks.uttyler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&amp;context=hrd_grad Enhancing the Cohesiveness of a Cognitive Diverse Team: the Role of Leadership]
* [https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI30505255/ Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams]
** [https://www.proquest.com/docview/2838332291 Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams]
* [https://cache.kzoo.edu/items/195fd798-9778-48f1-9fc5-d6c1dc47cec5 Modeling Cognitive Diversity]
* [https://jme.bmj.com/content/44/11/751 Artificial womb technology and the frontiers of human reproduction: conceptual differences and potential implications]
{{colend}}

== More later ==

* [[Computational mathematics]]

&quot;Agents Navier–Stokes math solve&quot; (search term, without quotes)

A distributed network of 10,000 agents (?) resolved the historic Navier–Stokes Millennium Prize problem in just under four days. By consuming 130 billion generated tokens across an 88 computational hours, the coordinated agent collective cracked one of the most stubborn enigmas in modern mathematics.</text>
      <sha1>s754iqp5ij8ebghork8n7ixlm8e3dq3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832558</id>
      <parentid>2832557</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T05:24:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Ten</username>
        <id>654933</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Some ideas to explore or elaborate on later */</comment>
      <origin>2832558</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4131" sha1="7wrj7zd74uch0246ablo6j2xhhv5w9p" xml:space="preserve">Ideas to possibly develop or integrate into various areas later. 
==Some ideas to explore or elaborate on later==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Python]]
* [[Business/Earning money]]
* [[National University of Singapore]]
* [[Peking University]]
* [[Tsinghua University]]
* [[Archaeology of Specific Peoples and Civilizations]]
* [[Syllabi]]
* [[Teaching]]
* [[Analyzing research]]
* [[Research analysis]]
* [[Research studies]]
* [[Courses]]
* [[Nano bots]]
* [[Learning]]
* [[Statistical analysis]]
* [[Peer to peer]]
* [[p2p]] / [[P2P]]
* [[Mesh networks]]
* [[Permissionless software]]
* [[CI/DC]]
* [[Coolify]]
* [[Prompts]]
* [[Agentic AI]]
* [[AI research]]
* [[Knowledge graph]]
* [[Loop engineering]]
* [[Graph engineering]]
* [[Vibe coding]]
* [[Agentic loops]]
* [[Agentic graphs]]
* [[Node-based visual system]]
* [[Agents in node graphs]]
* [[Graph theory architecture]]
* [[n8n for learning]]
* [[n8n for research]]
* [[Flow-based data pipeline]]
* [[Directed acyclic graph]]
* [[Research with AI]]
* [[Entrepreneurial psychology]]
* [[Procedural generation]]
* [[Becoming a lawyer]]
* [[Entrepreneurial behavior]]
* [[Entrepreneurial management]]
* [[Economic psychology]]
* [[Behavioral economics]]
{{colend}}

==Some more - diversity of thought ==
{{colbegin|3}}
* [[Diversity of thought]]
* [[w:Diversity ideologies|Diversity ideologies]]
* [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]]
* [[w:Diversity (business)|Diversity (business)]]
* [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]]
* [[w:Diversity, equity, and inclusion|Diversity, equity, and inclusion]]
* [[w:Neurodiversity|Neurodiversity]]
* [[w:Diversity (politics)|Diversity (politics)]]
* [[w:Unity in diversity|Unity in diversity]]
* [[w:Cultural diversity|Cultural diversity]]
* [[w:Gender diversity|Gender diversity]]
* [[w:Multicultural and diversity management|Multicultural and diversity management]]
* [[w:Team diversity|Team diversity]]
{{colend}}

===External===
{{colbegin|2}}
* [https://mtprof.msun.edu/Spr2007/fish.html Intellectual Diversity: What Is It and Do We Need It?]
* [https://roth.blogs.wesleyan.edu/tag/intellectual-diversity/ Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://tigerlearn.fhsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/Intellectual-Diversity-in-HE.pdf Intellectual Diversity in Higher Education]
* [https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2023/12/20/free-speech-and-intellectual-diversity/ Free Speech and Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://itsapps.odu.edu/ao/facultyhandbook/index.php?page=ch02s48.html Resolution Supporting Intellectual Diversity]
* [https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/exec-ed/difference/cognitive-diversity Cognitive Diversity: Know How to Harness It — And When to Rein It In — To Help Your Team Succeed]
* [https://online.merrimack.edu/cognitive-diversity-in-education/ Cognitive Diversity in Education]
* [https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/scottepage/research-2/diversity-research/ Diversity Research]
* [https://www.chapman.edu/diversity/news-and-events/cognitive-diversity/index.aspx Cognitive Diversity: Embracing Difference]
* [https://scholarworks.uttyler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&amp;context=hrd_grad Enhancing the Cohesiveness of a Cognitive Diverse Team: the Role of Leadership]
* [https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI30505255/ Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams]
** [https://www.proquest.com/docview/2838332291 Cognitive Diversity and Knowledge Integration in Student Design Teams]
* [https://cache.kzoo.edu/items/195fd798-9778-48f1-9fc5-d6c1dc47cec5 Modeling Cognitive Diversity]
* [https://jme.bmj.com/content/44/11/751 Artificial womb technology and the frontiers of human reproduction: conceptual differences and potential implications]
{{colend}}

== More later ==

* [[Computational mathematics]]

&quot;Agents Navier–Stokes math solve&quot; (search term, without quotes)

A distributed network of 10,000 agents (?) resolved the historic Navier–Stokes Millennium Prize problem in just under four days. By consuming 130 billion generated tokens across an 88 computational hours, the coordinated agent collective cracked one of the most stubborn enigmas in modern mathematics.</text>
      <sha1>7wrj7zd74uch0246ablo6j2xhhv5w9p</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nursery rhymes and songs/The Itsy Bitsy Spider</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>231874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832502</id>
      <parentid>2091495</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T00:29:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-48890-90</username>
        <id>3110836</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832502</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="30191" sha1="cq5jdioc8e07hg8e7n17tficm1bmgda" xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''&quot; (also known as &quot;'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''&quot; in Australia or &quot;'''Incy Wincy Spider'''&quot; in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or &quot;waterspout&quot; of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song.

One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation.

==Lyrics==
A commonly used version uses these words and gestures:

{|
!Words!!Fingerplay
|-
|&lt;poem&gt;The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.
Down came the rain
And washed the spider out.
Out came the sun
And dried up all the rain
And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:2em;&quot;|&lt;poem&gt;Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other.
Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered.
Sweep the hands from side to side.
Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun.
Wiggle fingers upwards.
(As in the first line)&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

===British variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)''
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)''
And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
&lt;/poem&gt;

Other versions exist.

== Origin ==
The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) &quot;The Spider Song&quot;. It appears to be a more adult version of this song using &quot;blooming, bloody&quot; instead of &quot;itsy bitsy&quot;. Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955).

Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' &quot;The Spider Song&quot;:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web,
The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out,
The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt; 

A slightly earlier version recorded in 1909 in Indiana recorded from a college commencement more closely resembles the most common modern version:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a blooming spider
Went up a blooming spout
And down came the rain
And washed the spider out
Out came the sun
And dried up all the rain
But that bloody blooming son of a gun
Went up that spout again &lt;/poem&gt;

A similar ribald verison featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Lived up a bloody spout
There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]]
And washed the bugger out!
But in a bloody minute, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
So the bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a &quot;deathless Cockney lyric&quot;, while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''.

In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree,
The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out,
The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!&lt;/poem&gt;

Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'':

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody spider
Went up a bloody spout
There came the rain
And washed the spider out
The bloody sun
And dried up all the rain
But that bloody blooming son of a gun
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals,  include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon &quot;Inferno&quot; Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy &amp; Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910),  ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December  8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as &quot;The bleedin' sparrer&quot;:

{{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot 
Lived up a bleedin’ spaht 
One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn 
An’ washed the bleeder aht.


An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded 
Dahn in the bleedin’ street 
‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm 
To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet.


But then the bleedin’ sun came aht 
Dried up the bleedin’ rain 
So that bleedin’ little sparrer 
‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again.


But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk 
‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery 
‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws 
An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery.


Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type 
Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun 
‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk 
An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun.


The moral of the story 
Is plain to everyone...
That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht 
Don’t get no bleedin’ fun.
}}

The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945).

One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955).

The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''.

The term &quot;itsy-bitsy&quot; originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of &quot;little bit&quot;. The components &quot;itty&quot; (a variant of little) and &quot;bitsy&quot; (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. 

The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''.

A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904).

A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a creeky sparrow
Went up a creeky spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The creeky sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;The bloody spider,
Went up a spout,
The bleeding rain came down,
Washed the spider out,
Out came the sun,
Dried up all the rain,
The bloody spider,
Went up that spout again.
&lt;/poem&gt;

A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Came up a bloody spout
There came a rain
Washed the buggy out
In a bloody sun, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
The bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody sparrow
Went up a blooming spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The bloody sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;
{{listen
 | type        = music | image = none | help = no
 | filename    = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg
 | title       = Hail, Columbia
 | filename2   = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg
 | title2      = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin)
 | filename3   = Alouette.mid
 | title3      = Alouette 
 | filename4   = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid
 | tile4       = Spannenlanger Hansel
 | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of &quot;Itsy Bitsy Spider&quot;.
}}
The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, &quot;[[Hail, Columbia]]&quot;, &quot;[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]&quot;, &quot;[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]&quot;, &quot;[[Down by the Station]]&quot;, &quot;Climbing Up the Golden Stairs&quot;, &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot; in the United States, and &quot;{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}&quot; (1890), &quot;Ich bin ein kleiner Esel&quot; (&quot;I'm a little donkey&quot;, the German-language version of &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot;) and &quot;{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}&quot; (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries.

== Score ==
&lt;score sound raw&gt;
\header { tagline = ##f }
\layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove &quot;Bar_number_engraver&quot; } }

global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }

right = \relative g' { \global
  d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. |
  b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. |
  g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4.
  fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

left = \relative g { \global
  d'8 | g,4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4
  r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | &lt;g b&gt;4. ~&lt;g b&gt;4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

verse = \lyricmode {
  The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout.
  Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out!
  Up came the sun and dried up all the rain.
  And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain.
} 

kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;
  \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. |
  g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

\score {
  \new PianoStaff &lt;&lt;
    \new ChordNames { \kords }
    \new Staff = &quot;right&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;clarinet&quot; }
    \right
    \addlyrics { \verse }
    \new Staff = &quot;left&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic grand&quot; }
    { \clef bass \left }
  &gt;&gt;
  \layout { }
  \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 }
    \tempo 4.=112
  }
}
&lt;/score&gt;

==Videos==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;400&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot; showfilename=&quot;yes&quot;&gt;
File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. 
File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
# https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265
# https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39
# https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113
# http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }}
# https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up
# https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690
# https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up
# https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ
# https://archive.org/details/beauty-and-the-beast-wolf-hubby-xoxo-webnovel/page/n182/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA105
# https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf
# https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&amp;pg=PA24&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=2
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887
# https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode
# https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA12-PA35&amp;dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&amp;f=false
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&amp;e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor
# https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/
# https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4&amp;
# https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up
# 
# https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA418&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM=
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=ATB18820901.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=tew18940609-03.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout---------
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA36&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA7&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA95&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA101&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&amp;pg=RA8-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&amp;pg=PA1750&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&amp;pg=RA15-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA300-IA1&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA46&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA235&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&amp;pg=PA177&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA270&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&amp;pg=PA479&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA100&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA446&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA222&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&amp;pg=PT148&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&amp;pg=PA272&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&amp;pg=PA87&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA118&amp;dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&amp;pg=PA102&amp;dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA32&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA196&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&amp;pg=PA139&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA149&amp;dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA236&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA277&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up
# https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911
# https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413
# https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n137/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up
# https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&amp;t=488s
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&amp;pg=PA676&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC
# https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns
# https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/
# https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode
# https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode
# https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&amp;pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&amp;ab_channel=MarkusBrylka
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk
# https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf
# http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&amp;titelid=120
# https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&amp;p=3723
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8
# https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf


==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia]

[[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]]</text>
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        <username>Atcovi</username>
        <id>276019</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-48890-90|~2026-48890-90]] ([[User_talk:~2026-48890-90|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="1311" sha1="cp08ogry6j2j954te9oyur5aay841zc" xml:space="preserve">==Lyrics and actions==
===American variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the water spout, 
Down came the rain and washed the spider out.
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain,
And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again. 
&lt;/poem&gt;

===British variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)''
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)''
And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
&lt;/poem&gt;

==Videos==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;400&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot; showfilename=&quot;yes&quot;&gt;
File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. 
File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia]

[[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]]</text>
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      <text bytes="30036" sha1="fk15rqs5x5eb8f6i45luau5bb8lbjsb" xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''&quot; (also known as &quot;'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''&quot; in Australia or &quot;'''Incy Wincy Spider'''&quot; in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or &quot;waterspout&quot; of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song.

One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation.

==Lyrics==
A commonly used version uses these words and gestures:

{|
!Words!!Fingerplay
|-
|&lt;poem&gt;The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.
Down came the rain
And washed the spider out.
Out came the sun
And dried up all the rain
And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:2em;&quot;|&lt;poem&gt;Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other.
Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered.
Sweep the hands from side to side.
Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun.
Wiggle fingers upwards.
(As in the first line)&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

===British variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)''
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)''
And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
&lt;/poem&gt;

Other versions exist.

== Origin ==
The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) &quot;The Spider Song&quot;. It appears to be a more adult version of this song using &quot;blooming, bloody&quot; instead of &quot;itsy bitsy&quot;. Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955).

Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' &quot;The Spider Song&quot;:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web,
The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out,
The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt; 

A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Lived up a bloody spout
There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]]
And washed the bugger out!
But in a bloody minute, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
So the bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a &quot;deathless Cockney lyric&quot;, while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''.

In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree,
The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out,
The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!&lt;/poem&gt;

Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'':

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody spider
Went up a bloody spout
There came the rain
And washed the spider out
The bloody sun
And dried up all the rain
But that bloody blooming son of a gun
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals,  include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon &quot;Inferno&quot; Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy &amp; Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962)  Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910),  ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December  8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as &quot;The bleedin' sparrer&quot;:

{{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot 
Lived up a bleedin’ spaht 
One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn 
An’ washed the bleeder aht.


An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded 
Dahn in the bleedin’ street 
‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm 
To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet.


But then the bleedin’ sun came aht 
Dried up the bleedin’ rain 
So that bleedin’ little sparrer 
‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again.


But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk 
‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery 
‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws 
An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery.


Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type 
Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun 
‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk 
An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun.


The moral of the story 
Is plain to everyone...
That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht 
Don’t get no bleedin’ fun.
}}

The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945).

One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955).

The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''.

The term &quot;itsy-bitsy&quot; originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of &quot;little bit&quot;. The components &quot;itty&quot; (a variant of little) and &quot;bitsy&quot; (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. 

The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''.

A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904).

A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a creeky sparrow
Went up a creeky spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The creeky sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;The bloody spider,
Went up a spout,
The bleeding rain came down,
Washed the spider out,
Out came the sun,
Dried up all the rain,
The bloody spider,
Went up that spout again.
&lt;/poem&gt;

A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Came up a bloody spout
There came a rain
Washed the buggy out
In a bloody sun, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
The bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody sparrow
Went up a blooming spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The bloody sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;
{{listen
 | type        = music | image = none | help = no
 | filename    = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg
 | title       = Hail, Columbia
 | filename2   = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg
 | title2      = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin)
 | filename3   = Alouette.mid
 | title3      = Alouette 
 | filename4   = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid
 | tile4       = Spannenlanger Hansel
 | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of &quot;Itsy Bitsy Spider&quot;.
}}
The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, &quot;[[Hail, Columbia]]&quot;, &quot;[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]&quot;, &quot;[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]&quot;, &quot;[[Down by the Station]]&quot;, &quot;Climbing Up the Golden Stairs&quot;, &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot; in the United States, and &quot;{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}&quot; (1890), &quot;Ich bin ein kleiner Esel&quot; (&quot;I'm a little donkey&quot;, the German-language version of &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot;) and &quot;{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}&quot; (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries.

== Score ==
&lt;score sound raw&gt;
\header { tagline = ##f }
\layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove &quot;Bar_number_engraver&quot; } }

global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }

right = \relative g' { \global
  d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. |
  b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. |
  g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4.
  fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

left = \relative g { \global
  d'8 | g,4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4
  r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | &lt;g b&gt;4. ~&lt;g b&gt;4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

verse = \lyricmode {
  The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout.
  Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out!
  Up came the sun and dried up all the rain.
  And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain.
} 

kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;
  \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. |
  g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

\score {
  \new PianoStaff &lt;&lt;
    \new ChordNames { \kords }
    \new Staff = &quot;right&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;clarinet&quot; }
    \right
    \addlyrics { \verse }
    \new Staff = &quot;left&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic grand&quot; }
    { \clef bass \left }
  &gt;&gt;
  \layout { }
  \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 }
    \tempo 4.=112
  }
}
&lt;/score&gt;

==Videos==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;400&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot; showfilename=&quot;yes&quot;&gt;
File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. 
File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
# https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265
# https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39
# https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113
# http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }}
# https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up
# https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690
# https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up
# https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ
# https://archive.org/details/beauty-and-the-beast-wolf-hubby-xoxo-webnovel/page/n182/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA105
# https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf
# https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&amp;pg=PA24&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=2
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887
# https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode
# https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA12-PA35&amp;dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&amp;f=false
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&amp;e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor
# https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/
# https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4&amp;
# https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up
# 
# https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA418&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM=
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=ATB18820901.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=tew18940609-03.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout---------
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA36&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA7&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA95&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA101&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&amp;pg=RA8-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&amp;pg=PA1750&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&amp;pg=RA15-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA300-IA1&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA46&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA235&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&amp;pg=PA177&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA270&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&amp;pg=PA479&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA100&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA446&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA222&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&amp;pg=PT148&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&amp;pg=PA272&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&amp;pg=PA87&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA118&amp;dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&amp;pg=PA102&amp;dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA32&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA196&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&amp;pg=PA139&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA149&amp;dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA236&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA277&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up
# https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911
# https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413
# https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n137/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up
# https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&amp;t=488s
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&amp;pg=PA676&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC
# https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns
# https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/
# https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode
# https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode
# https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&amp;pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&amp;ab_channel=MarkusBrylka
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk
# https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf
# http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&amp;titelid=120
# https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&amp;p=3723
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8
# https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf


==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia]

[[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]]</text>
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      <text bytes="30039" sha1="hg3nwamc12bjpms7ogwy960qs3e7lcn" xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''&quot; (also known as &quot;'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''&quot; in Australia or &quot;'''Incy Wincy Spider'''&quot; in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or &quot;waterspout&quot; of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song.

One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation.

==Lyrics==
A commonly used version uses these words and gestures:

{|
!Words!!Fingerplay
|-
|&lt;poem&gt;The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.
Down came the rain
And washed the spider out.
Out came the sun
And dried up all the rain
And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:2em;&quot;|&lt;poem&gt;Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other.
Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered.
Sweep the hands from side to side.
Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun.
Wiggle fingers upwards.
(As in the first line)&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

===British variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)''
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)''
And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
&lt;/poem&gt;

Other versions exist.

== Origin ==
The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) &quot;The Spider Song&quot;. It appears to be a more adult version of this song using &quot;blooming, bloody&quot; instead of &quot;itsy bitsy&quot;. Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955).

Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' &quot;The Spider Song&quot;:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web,
The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out,
The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt; 

A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Lived up a bloody spout
There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]]
And washed the bugger out!
But in a bloody minute, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
So the bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a &quot;deathless Cockney lyric&quot;, while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''.

In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree,
The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out,
The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!&lt;/poem&gt;

Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'':

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody spider
Went up a bloody spout
There came the rain
And washed the spider out
The bloody sun
And dried up all the rain
But that bloody blooming son of a gun
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals,  include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon &quot;Inferno&quot; Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy &amp; Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962),  ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910),  ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December  8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as &quot;The bleedin' sparrer&quot;:

{{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot 
Lived up a bleedin’ spaht 
One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn 
An’ washed the bleeder aht.


An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded 
Dahn in the bleedin’ street 
‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm 
To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet.


But then the bleedin’ sun came aht 
Dried up the bleedin’ rain 
So that bleedin’ little sparrer 
‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again.


But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk 
‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery 
‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws 
An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery.


Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type 
Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun 
‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk 
An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun.


The moral of the story 
Is plain to everyone...
That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht 
Don’t get no bleedin’ fun.
}}

The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945).

One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955).

The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''.

The term &quot;itsy-bitsy&quot; originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of &quot;little bit&quot;. The components &quot;itty&quot; (a variant of little) and &quot;bitsy&quot; (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. 

The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''.

A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904).

A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a creeky sparrow
Went up a creeky spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The creeky sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;The bloody spider,
Went up a spout,
The bleeding rain came down,
Washed the spider out,
Out came the sun,
Dried up all the rain,
The bloody spider,
Went up that spout again.
&lt;/poem&gt;

A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Came up a bloody spout
There came a rain
Washed the buggy out
In a bloody sun, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
The bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody sparrow
Went up a blooming spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The bloody sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;
{{listen
 | type        = music | image = none | help = no
 | filename    = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg
 | title       = Hail, Columbia
 | filename2   = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg
 | title2      = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin)
 | filename3   = Alouette.mid
 | title3      = Alouette 
 | filename4   = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid
 | tile4       = Spannenlanger Hansel
 | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of &quot;Itsy Bitsy Spider&quot;.
}}
The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, &quot;[[Hail, Columbia]]&quot;, &quot;[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]&quot;, &quot;[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]&quot;, &quot;[[Down by the Station]]&quot;, &quot;Climbing Up the Golden Stairs&quot;, &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot; in the United States, and &quot;{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}&quot; (1890), &quot;Ich bin ein kleiner Esel&quot; (&quot;I'm a little donkey&quot;, the German-language version of &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot;) and &quot;{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}&quot; (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries.

== Score ==
&lt;score sound raw&gt;
\header { tagline = ##f }
\layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove &quot;Bar_number_engraver&quot; } }

global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }

right = \relative g' { \global
  d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. |
  b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. |
  g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4.
  fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

left = \relative g { \global
  d'8 | g,4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4
  r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | &lt;g b&gt;4. ~&lt;g b&gt;4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

verse = \lyricmode {
  The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout.
  Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out!
  Up came the sun and dried up all the rain.
  And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain.
} 

kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;
  \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. |
  g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

\score {
  \new PianoStaff &lt;&lt;
    \new ChordNames { \kords }
    \new Staff = &quot;right&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;clarinet&quot; }
    \right
    \addlyrics { \verse }
    \new Staff = &quot;left&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic grand&quot; }
    { \clef bass \left }
  &gt;&gt;
  \layout { }
  \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 }
    \tempo 4.=112
  }
}
&lt;/score&gt;

==Videos==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;400&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot; showfilename=&quot;yes&quot;&gt;
File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. 
File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
# https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265
# https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39
# https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113
# http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }}
# https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up
# https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690
# https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up
# https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ
# https://archive.org/details/beauty-and-the-beast-wolf-hubby-xoxo-webnovel/page/n182/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA105
# https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf
# https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&amp;pg=PA24&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=2
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887
# https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode
# https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA12-PA35&amp;dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&amp;f=false
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&amp;e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor
# https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/
# https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4&amp;
# https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up
# 
# https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA418&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM=
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=ATB18820901.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=tew18940609-03.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout---------
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA36&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA7&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA95&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA101&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&amp;pg=RA8-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&amp;pg=PA1750&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&amp;pg=RA15-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA300-IA1&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA46&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA235&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&amp;pg=PA177&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA270&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&amp;pg=PA479&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA100&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA446&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA222&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&amp;pg=PT148&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&amp;pg=PA272&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&amp;pg=PA87&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA118&amp;dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&amp;pg=PA102&amp;dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA32&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA196&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&amp;pg=PA139&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA149&amp;dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA236&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA277&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up
# https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911
# https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413
# https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n137/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up
# https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&amp;t=488s
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&amp;pg=PA676&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC
# https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns
# https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/
# https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode
# https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode
# https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&amp;pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&amp;ab_channel=MarkusBrylka
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk
# https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf
# http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&amp;titelid=120
# https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&amp;p=3723
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8
# https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf


==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia]

[[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]]</text>
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      <text bytes="30037" sha1="iadmbiqior0ma2vligmebg9wtusokn9" xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''&quot; (also known as &quot;'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''&quot; in Australia or &quot;'''Incy Wincy Spider'''&quot; in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or &quot;waterspout&quot; of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song.

One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation.

==Lyrics==
A commonly used version uses these words and gestures:

{|
!Words!!Fingerplay
|-
|&lt;poem&gt;The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.
Down came the rain
And washed the spider out.
Out came the sun
And dried up all the rain
And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:2em;&quot;|&lt;poem&gt;Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other.
Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered.
Sweep the hands from side to side.
Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun.
Wiggle fingers upwards.
(As in the first line)&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

===British variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)''
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)''
And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
&lt;/poem&gt;

Other versions exist.

== Origin ==
The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) &quot;The Spider Song&quot;. It appears to be a more adult version of this song using &quot;blooming, bloody&quot; instead of &quot;itsy bitsy&quot;. Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955).

Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' &quot;The Spider Song&quot;:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web,
The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out,
The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt; 

A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Lived up a bloody spout
There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]]
And washed the bugger out!
But in a bloody minute, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
So the bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a &quot;deathless Cockney lyric&quot;, while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''.

In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree,
The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out,
The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!&lt;/poem&gt;

Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'':

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody spider
Went up a bloody spout
There came the rain
And washed the spider out
The bloody sun
And dried up all the rain
But that bloody blooming son of a gun
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals,  include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon &quot;Inferno&quot; Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy &amp; Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962),  ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910),  ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December  8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as &quot;The bleedin' sparrer&quot;:

{{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot 
Lived up a bleedin’ spaht 
One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn 
An’ washed the bleeder aht.


An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded 
Dahn in the bleedin’ street 
‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm 
To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet.


But then the bleedin’ sun came aht 
Dried up the bleedin’ rain 
So that bleedin’ little sparrer 
‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again.


But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk 
‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery 
‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws 
An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery.


Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type 
Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun 
‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk 
An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun.


The moral of the story 
Is plain to everyone...
That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht 
Don’t get no bleedin’ fun.
}}

The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945).

One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955).

The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''.

The term &quot;itsy-bitsy&quot; originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of &quot;little bit&quot;. The components &quot;itty&quot; (a variant of little) and &quot;bitsy&quot; (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. 

The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''.

A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904).

A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a creeky sparrow
Went up a creeky spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The creeky sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;The bloody spider,
Went up a spout,
The bleeding rain came down,
Washed the spider out,
Out came the sun,
Dried up all the rain,
The bloody spider,
Went up that spout again.
&lt;/poem&gt;

A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Came up a bloody spout
There came a rain
Washed the buggy out
In a bloody sun, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
The bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody sparrow
Went up a blooming spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The bloody sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;
{{listen
 | type        = music | image = none | help = no
 | filename    = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg
 | title       = Hail, Columbia
 | filename2   = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg
 | title2      = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin)
 | filename3   = Alouette.mid
 | title3      = Alouette 
 | filename4   = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid
 | tile4       = Spannenlanger Hansel
 | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of &quot;Itsy Bitsy Spider&quot;.
}}
The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, &quot;[[Hail, Columbia]]&quot;, &quot;[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]&quot;, &quot;[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]&quot;, &quot;[[Down by the Station]]&quot;, &quot;Climbing Up the Golden Stairs&quot;, &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot; in the United States, and &quot;{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}&quot; (1890), &quot;Ich bin ein kleiner Esel&quot; (&quot;I'm a little donkey&quot;, the German-language version of &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot;) and &quot;{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}&quot; (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries.

== Score ==
&lt;score sound raw&gt;
\header { tagline = ##f }
\layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove &quot;Bar_number_engraver&quot; } }

global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }

right = \relative g' { \global
  d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. |
  b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. |
  g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4.
  fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

left = \relative g { \global
  d'8 | g,4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4
  r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | &lt;g b&gt;4. ~&lt;g b&gt;4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

verse = \lyricmode {
  The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout.
  Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out!
  Up came the sun and dried up all the rain.
  And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain.
} 

kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;
  \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. |
  g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

\score {
  \new PianoStaff &lt;&lt;
    \new ChordNames { \kords }
    \new Staff = &quot;right&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;clarinet&quot; }
    \right
    \addlyrics { \verse }
    \new Staff = &quot;left&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic grand&quot; }
    { \clef bass \left }
  &gt;&gt;
  \layout { }
  \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 }
    \tempo 4.=112
  }
}
&lt;/score&gt;

==Videos==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;400&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot; showfilename=&quot;yes&quot;&gt;
File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. 
File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
# https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265
# https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39
# https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113
# http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }}
# https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up
# https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690
# https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up
# https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ
# https://archive.org/details/beauty-and-the-beast-wolf-hubby-xoxo-webnovel/page/n182/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA105
# https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf
# https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&amp;pg=PA24&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=2
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887
# https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode
# https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA12-PA35&amp;dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&amp;f=false
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&amp;e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor
# https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/
# https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4&amp;
# https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up
# 
# https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA418&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM=
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=ATB18820901.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=tew18940609-03.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout---------
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA36&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA7&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA95&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA101&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&amp;pg=RA8-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&amp;pg=PA1750&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&amp;pg=RA15-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA300-IA1&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA46&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA235&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&amp;pg=PA177&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA270&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&amp;pg=PA479&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA100&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA446&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA222&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&amp;pg=PT148&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&amp;pg=PA272&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&amp;pg=PA87&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA118&amp;dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&amp;pg=PA102&amp;dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA32&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA196&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&amp;pg=PA139&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA149&amp;dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA236&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA277&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up
# https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911
# https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413
# https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n135/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up
# https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&amp;t=488s
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&amp;pg=PA676&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC
# https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns
# https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/
# https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode
# https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode
# https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&amp;pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&amp;ab_channel=MarkusBrylka
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk
# https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf
# http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&amp;titelid=120
# https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&amp;p=3723
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8
# https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf

==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia]

[[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]]</text>
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      <text bytes="30001" sha1="kc6o3dw3dv64hah3npeij98ib1cjrwc" xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''The Itsy Bitsy Spider'''&quot; (also known as &quot;'''The Incey Wincey Spider'''&quot; in Australia or &quot;'''Incy Wincy Spider'''&quot; in the United Kingdom, and other anglophone countries) is a popular [[nursery rhyme]], [[folksong]], and [[fingerplay]] that describes the adventures of a [[spider]] as it ascends, descends, and re-ascends the downspout or &quot;waterspout&quot; of a [[Rain gutter|gutter]] system or, alternatively, the spout of a [[teapot]], or open-air reservoir. It is usually accompanied by a sequence of gestures that mimic the words of the song.

One claim says that the rhyme is based on a song called “Tipsy Dipsy Hobo” and was a reference to the [[Safety|dangers]] of a [[person]] getting [[drunk]] and trying to climb on board of [[trains]], risking a fatal [[injury]]. But it doesn’t appear to be any credible source for this interpretation.

==Lyrics==
A commonly used version uses these words and gestures:

{|
!Words!!Fingerplay
|-
|&lt;poem&gt;The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.
Down came the rain
And washed the spider out.
Out came the sun
And dried up all the rain
And the itsy bitsy spider climbed up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;
|style=&quot;padding-left:2em;&quot;|&lt;poem&gt;Alternately touch the thumb of one hand to the index finger of the other.
Hold both hands up and wiggle the fingers as the hands are lowered.
Sweep the hands from side to side.
Raise both hands and sweep to the sides to form a semicircle as the sun.
Wiggle fingers upwards.
(As in the first line)&lt;/poem&gt;
|}

===British variant===
&lt;poem&gt;
The incy wincy spider climbed up the water spout, ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
Down came the rain and washed the spider out. ''(Wiggle fingers of both hands, palm out, whilst moving hands down; then make sweeping motion with both hands, center outwards)''
Out came the sun and dried up all the rain, ''(Lifting motion with both hands)''
And the incy wincy spider climbed up the spout again. ''(Touch left thumb to right forefinger, then left forefinger to right thumb, whilst moving hands upwards)''
&lt;/poem&gt;

Other versions exist.

== Origin ==
The origin for the song is unknown. It was first published in musical publications, such as the earliest known recorded version in the book ''Camp and Camino in Lower California, A Record of The Adventures of The Author While Exploring [[Baja California peninsula|Peninsular California, Mexico]]'' (1910), by Arthur Walbridge North (1874–1943), page 279-280, where it is referred to as (the classic) &quot;The Spider Song&quot;. It appears to be a more adult version of this song using &quot;blooming, bloody&quot; instead of &quot;itsy bitsy&quot;. Another printed versions appeared in ''Camp and Trail'' (1911), and ''Journal of [[American Folklore]]'' (1920). It was later published in one of its song's several modern versions in [[Western Folklore]], by the ''California Folklore Society'' (1947), [[Mike Seeger|Mike]], [[Peggy Seeger|Peggy]], and [[Ruth Crawford Seeger]]'s ''American Folk Songs for Children'' (1948), and in ''The Growing Family : A Guide for Parents'' by [[Maxwell Slutz Stewart]] (1955).

Lyrics as described the version in 1910 as they were originally found in a book, which was as the 'classic' &quot;The Spider Song&quot;:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh, the blooming, bloody spider went up the spider web,
The blooming, bloody rain came down and washed the spider out,
The blooming, bloody sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, bloody spider came up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt; 

A similar ribald version featuring a bloody [[sparrow]] instead of a spider was recorded on December 15, 1879 issue in a [[London]] magazine ''The Pearl'' which goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Lived up a bloody spout
There came a bloody [[thunderstorm]]
And washed the bugger out!
But in a bloody minute, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
So the bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

The song later appeared in publications such as ''The Purple and White at Millsaps College'' (1909) ''Proceedings of the ... Convention of the Indiana Sanitary and Water Supply Association'' (1912), ''Howard University Program'' (1912), ''Camp Fire Girls'' (1912), ''The Oregon Teachers Monthly'' (1912), ''The Chautauquan'' (1912), ''Baltimore and Ohio Employees Railroad Company Magazine'' (1913) and ''Variety (August 1926)''. A version appeared in ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine in December 1913 was describes as a &quot;deathless Cockney lyric&quot;, while it printed a version in the ''Virginian-Pilot and the Norfolk Landmark'' - Volume 49 (November 3, 1913). A reference to the bloody sparrow in this book called ''Reminiscences: Volume One'', by John Orlando Hodge (1828-1912), published in 1902 attributing the poem to a MA is a Harry L. Veil, in Cleveland, Ohio. Also, it was printed in a 1945 book called ''Apples of Eden: A Private Collection of American Folk-Lore''.

In ''[[Symphony No. 4 (Mahler)|Mahler's Symphony No. 4]]'' (1901), Floros divides the movement into five main parts (A – B – A{{sup|1}} – B{{sup|1}} – A{{sup|2}}) followed by a coda. The first theme in G major is played in the beginning of part A by the cellos, a version from 1901 goes like this:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;Oh! the blooming blasted sparrow went up the oak tree,
The blooming, blasted rain came down and washed the sparrow out,
The blooming, blasted sun came out and dried up all the rain,
And the blooming, blasted sparrow came up the tree again!&lt;/poem&gt;

Some historians think the rhyme may date back to a 1908 magazine ''The Children's Friend'':

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody spider
Went up a bloody spout
There came the rain
And washed the spider out
The bloody sun
And dried up all the rain
But that bloody blooming son of a gun
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

Later, versions of the spider-sparrow where printed in newspapers, journals,  include ''The True Citizen'' (August 25, 1882), ''Brownstown Banner'' (August 10, 1882), ''The Puget Sound Mail'' (August 12, 1882), ''Hickman courier'' (August 11, 1882) ''The Judge'' (July 26, 1884), ''The National Police Gazette'' (November 1, 1884), ''The New York Mirror'' (July 28, 1888), ''The Stamp World: Vol. V-VI'' (July 1889) ''The Atlanta Constitution'' (July 20, 1889), ''Columbus, Enquirer-Sun'' (July 21, 1889), ''Monroe Daily Independent'' (July 22, 1889), ''The Theatre'' - Volume 5 (1888-1889), ''The Griffin Daily News and Sun'' (August 18, 1889), ''Morris Tribune'' (October 2, 1889), ''Alleghany Tribune'' - Volume 4 (September 1, 1882), ''The Evening World'' (June 9, 1894), ''The American Slang Dictionary'' (1891), ''The Papyrus'' - Volume 1 (1907), ''Chance Hits'' (1915), ''National Floodmarks'' (1915), ''The Inside Track'' - Volumes 8-9 (1929), ''American Cattle Producer'' - Volume 5 (1924), ''Commerce and Finance'' - Volume 16 (1927), ''The Producer'' - Volumes 5-6 (1923), ''The Axe-thrower of the Tittabawassee'' (1935), ''The Merrill Studies in The Bridge'' (1970), ''The Autocar'' (1912),'' Odds and Ends of Prose and Verse'' (1902), ''Mekeel's Weekly Stamp News'' - Volume 28 (1914), ''The Santa Fe Magazine'' - Volume 34 (1939), ''California poems and selections'' (1916), ''University of Ottawa review'' (1902), ''The Gallovidian Annual'' (1932), ''The McGill Daily Vol. 04 No. 116: (March 6, 1915)'', ''Archon'' (1914), ''My Colonial Service in British Guiana, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Fiji, Australia, Newfoundland, and Hong Kong, with Interludes'' - Volume 2 (1903), ''Current Politics, Literature, Science and Art'' - Volume 2 (1884), ''Republic of Dreams Greenwich Village: The American Bohemia'' (2007), ''America's war for humanity related in story and picture'' (1898), ''Birds of Lakeside and Prairie'' (1901), ''Birds and Nature'' (1914), ''Specimens of Type, Borders, Ornaments'' (1892), ''Demorest's Monthly Magazine'' - Volume 31 (1894), ''The Robert W. Gordon &quot;Inferno&quot; Collection'' (1928), ''The Anatomy of Swearing'' (1967), ''Navy &amp; Army Illustrated'' - Volume 9 (1899), ''Winged Wonders: A Celebration of Birds in Human History'' (2007), ''The Letters of Thomasina Atkins'' (1918), ''Songs for Lions'' (1929), ''Verse and Verse'' (1930), ''Camp Management: A Manual for Camp Directors'' (1923), ''Billy Whiskers and the Radio'' (1927), ''Record of Proceedings of the Annual Meeting'' (1935), ''Pantaloons and Antics; Or, Doodling with a Hermes'' (1964), ''Foxes and Physic'' (1962),  ''Against the Wall'' (1929), ''Midland Schools Official Organ of the Iowa State Education Association'' - Volume 25 (1910),  ''Fuel Magazine: The Coal Operators National Weekly'' - Volume 17 (1911), ''Dixon Evening Telegraph'' (April 3, 1911), ''The Duluth Herald'' (December  8, 1913), ''Norwich Bulletin (July 31, 1902), ''Dartmouth Alumni Magazine'' (December 1964), and ''Meayrs (May 1971) as &quot;The bleedin' sparrer&quot;:

{{Poem quote|We ‘ad a bleedin’ sparrer wot 
Lived up a bleedin’ spaht 
One day the bleedin’ rain came dahn 
An’ washed the bleeder aht.


An’ as 'e layed ‘arf drahnded 
Dahn in the bleedin’ street 
‘E begged that bleedin’ rainstorm 
To bave ‘is bleedin’ feet.


But then the bleedin’ sun came aht 
Dried up the bleedin’ rain 
So that bleedin’ little sparrer 
‘E climbs up ‘is spaht again.


But, Oh! - the cruel sparrer ‘awk 
‘E spies ‘im in ‘is snuggery 
‘E sharpens up ‘is bleedin’ claws 
An’ rips ‘im aht by thuggery.


Jist then a bleedin’ sportin’ type 
Wot ‘ad a bleedin’ gun 
‘E spots that bleedin’ sparrer ‘awk 
An’ blasts ‘is bleedin’ fun.


The moral of the story 
Is plain to everyone...
That them wot’s up the bleedin’ spaht 
Don’t get no bleedin’ fun.
}}

The bloody sparrow version can be found in aircraft books and magazines such as ''Fighter Pilots Songbook Black Widow Squadron'' (1963), ''354th Tactical Fighter Squadron Training Manual'' (1967), ''46th Tactical Fighter Squadron Songbook'' (1970), and ''Flight magazine'' (January 19, 1922). It also appeared in films such as ''[[The Hill (1965 film)|The Hill]]'' (1965), and ''[[White Pongo]]'' (1945).

One of the bloody-rooting spider references was founded in newspapers and books such as ''Cornell Countryman'' - Volumes 41-44 (1945), ''National Sportsman'' - Volume 77 (1937), and ''Blow the Candle Out'' (1955).

The Finland spider named, ''Hämä-hämä-häkki'' can be found in A.S. Packard, Jr.'s 1873 book ''Our Common Insects''.

The term &quot;itsy-bitsy&quot; originated in the late 19th century as a reduplicated baby-talk alteration of &quot;little bit&quot;. The components &quot;itty&quot; (a variant of little) and &quot;bitsy&quot; (a variant of bit) first appeared in print independently in 1798, 1850, 1875, and 1883, respectively, eventually merging into the popular phrase by 1882. 

The creaky sparrow version have founded in a 1780 book ''The Charles ''.

A version of a [[halloween]] sparrow was founded in an 1882 opera called ''The House of the Pumpkin Tree'' that premiered at the [[Niblo's Garden]]. The opera was particularly successfull, the halloween song survived and flourished, and versions can be heard in later ballad operas and musical theaters, including ''The Perfect Girl'' (1889), ''The Rage of the Mansion'' (1892), ''The Playhouse'' (1895), ''The Emergency'' (1897) and ''The Dancing Majors'' (1904).

A creeky sparrow version was published in 1972 in Missouri reported said a guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle in a [[Silver Dollar City]] ride [[Fire in the Hole (1972 roller coaster)|Fire in the Hole]] reuses the version:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a creeky sparrow
Went up a creeky spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The creeky sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;

The famous collector J. J. Carty's create a version in 1922 in ''The Bell System technical journal'' and the lyrics began with the following verse:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;The bloody spider,
Went up a spout,
The bleeding rain came down,
Washed the spider out,
Out came the sun,
Dried up all the rain,
The bloody spider,
Went up that spout again.
&lt;/poem&gt;

A reference to the bloody sparrow in this ''Universal Weekly'' magazine published in 1925 attributing the poem to a Hollywood:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;
He was a bloody sparrow 
Came up a bloody spout
There came a rain
Washed the buggy out
In a bloody sun, 
They stopped the bloody rain;
The bloody little sparrow 
Went up the spout again.&lt;/poem&gt;

Perhaps, the recorded version of the song, when guest suffered injuries when falling out of a ride vehicle, in a 1978 ride, [[Blazing Fury]]:

&lt;poem style=&quot;margin-left: 2em;&quot;&gt;There was a bloody sparrow
Went up a blooming spout
The heavy rain came down
Washed the sparrow out
The sun came out
Dried up all the rain
The bloody sparrow
Went up that spout again. &lt;/poem&gt;
{{listen
 | type        = music | image = none | help = no
 | filename    = Four Ruffles and Flourishes and Hail Columbia.ogg
 | title       = Hail, Columbia
 | filename2   = Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth.ogg
 | title2      = Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. posth. (Chopin)
 | filename3   = Alouette.mid
 | title3      = Alouette 
 | filename4   = Spannenlanger Hansel.mid
 | tile4       = Spannenlanger Hansel
 | description4 = These songs uses the same tune of &quot;Itsy Bitsy Spider&quot;.
}}
The song is sung by and for children in countless languages and cultures. It is similar to the melodies ([[metric line]]) of the songs, &quot;[[Hail, Columbia]]&quot;, &quot;[[Chopin, Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. Posth]]&quot;, &quot;[[Alouette (song)|Alouette]]&quot;, &quot;[[Down by the Station]]&quot;, &quot;Climbing Up the Golden Stairs&quot;, &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot; in the United States, and &quot;{{ill|Auf der Mauer, auf der Lauer|de}}&quot; (1890), &quot;Ich bin ein kleiner Esel&quot; (&quot;I'm a little donkey&quot;, the German-language version of &quot;Sweetly Sings the Donkey&quot;) and &quot;{{ill|Spannenlanger Hansel|de}}&quot; (1838) (see: [[Hansel and Gretel]]) in German-speaking countries.

== Score ==
&lt;score sound raw&gt;
\header { tagline = ##f }
\layout { indent = 0\cm \context { \Score \remove &quot;Bar_number_engraver&quot; } }

global = { \key g \major \time 6/8 \partial 8 }

right = \relative g' { \global
  d8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g2. |
  b4. b4 c8 | d4. d | c4 b8 c4 d8 b2. |
  g4. g4 a8 | b4. b | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4.
  fis4 fis8 | g4 g8 g4 a8 | b4. b4 b8 | a4 g8 a4 b8 | g4. ~g4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

left = \relative g { \global
  d'8 | g,4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 d'4 c8 | b4 a8 g4. | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 |
  g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | g4 r8 &lt;b d&gt;4 r8 | fis4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | g4
  r8 d'4 d8 | g,4 r8 b4 a8 | g8 b c d4 r8 | fis,4 r8 &lt;c' d&gt;4 r8 | &lt;g b&gt;4. ~&lt;g b&gt;4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

verse = \lyricmode {
  The it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der crawled up the wa -- ter spout.
  Down came the rain and washed the spi -- der out!
  Up came the sun and dried up all the rain.
  And the it -- sy bit -- sy spi -- der went up the spout a -- gain.
} 

kords = \chordmode { \set ChordNames.midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic guitar (steel)&quot;
  \set chordChanges = ##t d,8 | g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | d,2.:7 | \set chordChanges = ##t d,2.:7 | g,2. |
  \set chordChanges = ##f g,2. | e,2.:m | \set chordChanges = ##t e,2.:m | g,2. |
  g,2. | g,2. | d,2.:7 | g,4. ~g,4 \bar &quot;|.&quot;
}

\score {
  \new PianoStaff &lt;&lt;
    \new ChordNames { \kords }
    \new Staff = &quot;right&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;clarinet&quot; }
    \right
    \addlyrics { \verse }
    \new Staff = &quot;left&quot; \with { midiInstrument = &quot;acoustic grand&quot; }
    { \clef bass \left }
  &gt;&gt;
  \layout { }
  \midi { \context { \ChordNames midiMaximumVolume = #0.8 }
    \tempo 4.=112
  }
}
&lt;/score&gt;

==Videos==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;400&quot; heights=&quot;300&quot; showfilename=&quot;yes&quot;&gt;
File:Itsy Bitsy Spider - La Araña Pequeñita.webm|American variant with American accent, followed by Spanish language version. 
File:Insey winsey spider song video.webm|British variant, American accent
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
# https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/97265265
# https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/school-radio/nursery-rhymes-incy-wincy-spider/zr4yt39
# https://www.ladbible.com/community/incy-wincy-spider-dark-meaning-543924-20230113
# http://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260215052014/https://www.datsplat.com/words-to-the-itsy-bitsy-spider/ |date=2026-02-15 }}
# https://archive.org/details/campcaminoinlowe00nort_0#page/n338/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/camptrail01whit#page/n203/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/journalofamefolk32ameruoft#page/n445/mode/2up
# https://www.jstor.org/stable/1496690
# https://archive.org/details/americanfolksong0000seeg/page/126/mode/2up
# https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000977986
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZMq75G7MpQ
# https://archive.org/details/pearl_1-6/page/n178/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/millsapscollegepurpleandwhite19081909_201509#page/n54/mode/2up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0e0TAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=RA2-PA105
# https://www.in.gov/history/files/publichealth.pdf
# https://dh.howard.edu/hugradpro/59/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FvqDbf4az0IC&amp;pg=PA24&amp;source=gbs_toc_r&amp;cad=2
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.a0004602793
# https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=iau.31858055201887
# https://archive.org/details/baltimoreohioemp01balt#page/n584mode
# https://archive.org/details/variety84-1926-08#page/n110mode
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Fl8wAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=RA12-PA35&amp;dq=There+Was+a+Bloomin+Sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=0&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwisl86H-qiFAxWWj4kEHfpJAi0Q6AF6BAgEEAI#v=onepage&amp;q=There%20Was%20a%20Bloomin%20Sparra&amp;f=false
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=VPTNL19131103.1.6&amp;e=-------en-20--61--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://archive.org/details/reminiscences02hodg#page/n382/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1945applesofeden/page/n11/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gustavmahlersymp0000flor
# https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/q9kRAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjshtWy3rSUAxUpmokEHY_AKhwQre8FegQIAxABpg=RA2-PA29
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1882-08-25/ed-1/seq-6/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/brownstown-banner-aug-10-1882-p-1/
# https://washingtondigitalnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=PUGSNDML18820812.1.4&amp;
# https://archive.org/details/xt786688k30x/page/n0/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_judge_1884-07-26_6_145/page/n5/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/sim_national-police-gazette_1884-11-01_45_371/page/n1/mode/2up
# 
# https://archive.org/details/per_new-york-dramatic-mirror_the-new-york-mirror_1888-07-28_20_500/page/n2/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1889thestampworld1/page/n33/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/per_atlanta-constitution_1889-07-20_21/page/n3/mode/2up
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn84024799/1889-07-21/ed-1/seq-2/
# https://newspaperarchive.com/monroe-daily-independent-jul-22-1889-p-1/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QuYRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA418&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053183/1889-08-18/ed-1/seq-4/#words=bloody+sparrow
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESnwEB7keqTcxDew0Sv9UZTOu-pDaP4rQbjGhOXSX7zVsIr7NdOGQAj0RrTbxI9xG4ZacFo5eXc6qr4hx5XJ3n9j-BkHaKk7FWwjxC7YkVAN2fUSFkHRYHyUt-nhm_G4vejgfE6eDdOwIdCr8L2ghvwwVAg1UeSNjXEE2U8-tcJyUXxrz1LQBrdzlSQ8RdQUK0ySQC618j3URiwvY-qsHcJoM=
# https://www.virginiachronicle.com/?a=d&amp;d=ATB18820901.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--21--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow--------
# https://www.nyshistoricnewspapers.org/?a=d&amp;d=tew18940609-03.1.4&amp;e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-bloody+sparrow+went+the+spout---------
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uLNZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA36&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwibhvjUibuVAxXQFVkFHfWxCho4ChDoAXoECAgQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=n7znAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA7&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4CcgAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA95&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=iL00AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA101&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=evk8AAAAIAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj27r_fiLuVAxX3D1kFHRp2PY0Q6AF6BAgPEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S8qVjIE-trwC&amp;pg=RA8-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECA4QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=GAtli-kuoggC&amp;pg=PA1750&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=_DZmYt6D-i4C&amp;pg=RA15-PA15&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=4Fg1AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=r4daAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE-tSairuVAxXRFVkFHdKKN4s4ChDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=RoPmAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA300-IA1&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=lTEZAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA46&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ouUnAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA235&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigmMHviLuVAxW1M1kFHbp-PaUQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://archive.org/details/californiapoemss00haag/page/n61/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/v5universityofot1902univ/page/n155/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/gallovidianannua0000doro/page/87/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/McGillLibrary-mcgill-daily-v04-n116-march-06-1915-5927/page/n1/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/archonmar1914dumm/page/125/mode/2up/
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hsPTzwM6p9QC&amp;pg=PA177&amp;dq=blooming+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU5J3s8smVAxW7EFkFHXTRE0MQ6AF6BAgOEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=0xDnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA270&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+blooming+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj2qYaX9MmVAxVglIkEHVybOpYQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ADqRn3ucaBQC&amp;pg=PA479&amp;dq=bloody+sparrow+went+up+a+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjAiNnR9MmVAxXTrokEHRTuJ_MQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/stream/americaswarforhu00newy/americaswarforhu00newy#page/n255/mode/1up
# https://books.google.com/books?id=izcIAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA100&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=hzJEAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA446&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiS2OrIzeWVAxWYj4kEHQXqJwg4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=alNBAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;dq=sparrow+spout+wind+and+rain&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwigirjyou-VAxVarYkEHQ1iNYQ4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=xphPAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA222&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgNEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=qOdw7iaMDIkC&amp;pg=PT148&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=QERsPn0nN-YC&amp;pg=PA272&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgKEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=k1hvhzk5QgcC&amp;pg=PA87&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwic29Lvn--VAxV2D1kFHVhmGvUQ6AF6BAgMEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=G0ZHAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;dq=sparrer+went+up+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiFpJL1oe-VAxUilYkEHbAPGvk4ChDoAXoECAcQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=zgrPAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA118&amp;dq=sparrow+built+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjKvvKnou-VAxWvk4kEHQTtCIIQ6AF6BAgJEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=nbud7Dw4STgC&amp;pg=PA102&amp;dq=the+spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjb9p7Go--VAxXA5ckDHfz1HfoQ6AF6BAgIEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SedOAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA32&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPOAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA196&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiX5-Ts5YSWAxWsjIkEHT1HHy44ChDoAXoECA0QAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=NLPxaOceu2sC&amp;pg=PA139&amp;dq=spider+and+the+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwj47qGC5oSWAxX1m4kEHcGAHzY4HhDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=BDdUM-1YpAsC&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjko6yG6JKWAxXbF2IAHXv6JHs4WhDoAXoECAsQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=ODBMAAAAIAAJ&amp;q=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiv6P-A6JKWAxXbKlkFHVudK_E4UBDoAXoECAwQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=uuk6AAAAMAAJ&amp;q=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;dq=There+was+a+bloomin+sparra&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil-K3Kw-OWAxXlLlkFHRqBLCE4FBDoAXoECBIQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=vA8xAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA149&amp;dq=spider+and+the+went+up+the+spout+again&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiGjpvc55KWAxWkLFkFHapeKDc4KBDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=pUFIAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA236&amp;dq=there+was+a+sparrow+went+up+a+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwil1eqc6JKWAxWkGVkFHXi_Dxw4MhDoAXoECBAQAw
# https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7IcAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA277&amp;dq=bloomin+sparrow+blasted+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwi-5M_W6JKWAxUUGlkFHYcUFhk4ChDoAXoECAkQAw
# https://archive.org/details/dixon-evening-telegraph-1911-04-03/page/n5/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/dec2191302dulu/page/n79/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/norwichbulletinj00bull_2/page/n234/mode/2up
# https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1964/12/1/1911
# https://www.blipfoto.com/entry/2182029548168679413
# https://archive.org/details/1963fighterpilotssongbookblackwidowsquadron#page/n138/mode/2up
#https://archive.org/details/1967354thtacticalfightersdrntrainingmanual/page/n131/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/1970s-46thtacticalfightersquadronsongbookfromreeves/page/n135/mode/2up
# https://archive.org/details/Flight_International_Magazine_1922-01-19-pdf/page/n7/mode/2up
# https://ok.ru/video/7961626544846?st._aid=VideoState_open_search
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R6jSub-f8g&amp;t=488s
# https://books.google.com/books?id=FMbweex1qNEC&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgLEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=adAcAQAAMAAJ&amp;q=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgQEAM
# https://books.google.com/books?id=S93LdPw2KP0C&amp;pg=PA676&amp;dq=bloody+spider+went+up+the+bloody+spout&amp;hl=en&amp;newbks=1&amp;newbks_redir=1&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiy4NP1h7uVAxU5FVkFHd0VFVMQ6AF6BAgHEAM
# https://archive.org/details/ourcommoninsects00packrich#page/n17/mode/2up
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESTQHuR6pNypATq0YkuRkHv5LBnlE7LYWD3BYZjzGmCoRYYMGf-l6J4WaKQcECMyIY0xEyFq2rOYusTJq0N4Wp-jRSdRieAejxoyS_uVYI
# https://www.google.com/goto?url=CAESUAHuR6pNhoMIuFt1JnLijLZFer9VaiY5he5xIEKwCsEVv00Cpb0oaAXZhjmf0kPctxirPRFjdwLk-Zpo49plSE9fZw6B-V5MkiaJQD70uVDC
# https://archive.org/details/americanwarfrom100smit#page/n174/mode/2up
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wBdjLMM7Ns
# https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-kansas-city-times-injured-on-silver/66919121/
# https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni08amerrich#page/n616mode
# https://archive.org/details/universalweekly100movi_3/page/n430/mode/1up#page/n430mode
# https://www.reddit.com/r/Dollywood/comments/1ltvp75/blazing_fury_during_late_70s_and_early_80s/
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M8edn8lOi78&amp;pp=0gcJCZkLAYcqIYzv
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PHpHx0Zszn4&amp;ab_channel=MarkusBrylka
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_hFw_cWg9U
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRV-797awEQ
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOKxVWqW1Fk
# https://www.candomusic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sweetly-sings-the-donkey-pdf.pdf
# http://www.labbe.de/liederbaum/index.asp?themaid=23&amp;titelid=120
# https://www.mamalisa.com/?t=es&amp;p=3723
# https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CFcobdL8aO8
# https://makingmusicfun.net/public/assets/pdf/sheet_music/itsy-bitsy-spider-piano.pdf

==Elsewhere in the Wikiverse==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itsy_Bitsy_Spider 'Itsy Bitsy Spider' on Wikipedia]

[[Category:Nursery Rhymes and Songs]]</text>
      <sha1>kc6o3dw3dv64hah3npeij98ib1cjrwc</sha1>
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  </page>
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    <title>WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mikael Häggström</username>
        <id>12130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adding editorial board members */ no longer template</comment>
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      <text bytes="49315" sha1="ik4ycbasi28hkmfn8dy2tdc0xbiphg5" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
# If they do not yet have a Wikidata item, create one
# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 
# Add this text &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:WikiJournal accepted associate editor|WikiJournal accepted associate editor]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; underneath their application on the [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor applications page]], which will paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
# If they do not yet have a Wikidata item, create one
# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Add to the relevant editorial team ({{Q|{{WJQboard}}}} or {{Q|{{WJQassoc}}}}):
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>ik4ycbasi28hkmfn8dy2tdc0xbiphg5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832517</id>
      <parentid>2832516</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T02:04:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikael Häggström</username>
        <id>12130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adding editorial board members */ Not necessary</comment>
      <origin>2832517</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="49261" sha1="19yezo2esxtfp4lwfke20p1cowb6k9r" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 
# Add this text &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:WikiJournal accepted associate editor|WikiJournal accepted associate editor]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; underneath their application on the [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor applications page]], which will paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
# If they do not yet have a Wikidata item, create one
# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Add to the relevant editorial team ({{Q|{{WJQboard}}}} or {{Q|{{WJQassoc}}}}):
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>19yezo2esxtfp4lwfke20p1cowb6k9r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832518</id>
      <parentid>2832517</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T02:04:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikael Häggström</username>
        <id>12130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adding associate editors */ Not necessary</comment>
      <origin>2832518</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="49207" sha1="2to5k5g3i510hbh63j6wqwli6fdl78r" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 
# Add this text &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Template:WikiJournal accepted associate editor|WikiJournal accepted associate editor]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; underneath their application on the [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor applications page]], which will paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Add to the relevant editorial team ({{Q|{{WJQboard}}}} or {{Q|{{WJQassoc}}}}):
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal guidelines]]</text>
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This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 

Preferably paste these points as a checklist on the talk page: &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Add to the relevant editorial team ({{Q|{{WJQboard}}}} or {{Q|{{WJQassoc}}}}):
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>6uqt6ztagxenegtw13oymsmiqi0u2gl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832520</id>
      <parentid>2832519</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T02:06:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikael Häggström</username>
        <id>12130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata  */ if needed</comment>
      <origin>2832520</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48924" sha1="aafxjh6l14g5oc9ul2d72upb02jcz7m" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 

Preferably paste these points as a checklist on the talk page: &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
If needed: ({{Q|{{WJQboard}}}} or {{Q|{{WJQassoc}}}}):
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal guidelines]]</text>
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        <id>12130</id>
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      <text bytes="48880" sha1="9qqysi3whqj6d9r7o34q1a1jogs19ev" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{WikiJ top menu}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 

Preferably paste these points as a checklist on the talk page: &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
If needed:
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


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This page describes the steps required to process an article through submission, peer review, formatting and publication.

{{TOClimit|1}}

==Editing published works==
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|Community peer review comments]] can always be left for articles before or after publication. For articles dual-published into Wikipedia, readers are also encouraged to directly improve or comment on the equivalent Wikipedia pages. Both authors and associate editors may correct spelling errors, minor grammatical errors and inconsistencies in reference formatting even for published works. Technical edits to pages are also allowed. On the other hand, a change in the meaning of the main text may be reverted since it may require renewed peer review and author approval. Suggestions for updates of the main text of published articles may be created as separate drafts that are re-submitted to undergo peer review before being used to update the article. It is recommended to state any conflicts of interest (or simply &quot;none stated&quot;) when proposing changes to the main content of published articles. These requirements are not needed if the edits are obviously spelling or grammar corrections.

==How to contribute==

===Help run the journal===
* Apply to be on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|'''editorial board''']] to steer the journal's direction
* Apply to be an '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor]]''' to help organise peer review, formatting and Wikipedia-integration of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]
* Apply to become the '''[[meta:WikiJournal User Group/Reports|treasurer]]''' of the journals
* [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Be bold|'''Be bold''']] with changes that you think will improve the journal

===Keep in touch===
*Join the [{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group|https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en|https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/{{WikiJXyz}}}} '''public mailing list''']. This is open for anyone to email and read
*Put the '''[[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|main discussion page]]''' on your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to get updates on the project
*Add other journal project pages to your [[Help:Watchlist|watchlist]] to monitor discussion page questions or any vandalism
*Follow our accounts on [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Facebook'''] or [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} '''Twitter''']
*Share your ideas of what the journal could be like in the '''[[Meta:WikiJournal|future as separate Wikimedia project]]'''

===Outreach===
{{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Science|WikiJournal of Medicine=[[File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}} Poster.pdf|thumb|Poster for noticeboards, tearooms and mailing lists]]}}
Outreach to potential contributors is essential for the journal, and the target audience may include (but is not limited to) scholars and health professionals 
*The journal may be '''presented''' at scholarly gatherings ([https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1SOGLdK-iDrW3id-oi3O0oFYGRPughkkt7G0IkHbxL98/edit Example presentation])
*Many '''scholars''' have written [[Wikipedia:Thesis|theses]] that are not published, but sections of which could very well fit as an article
*Also, university faculties {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine| and medical schools}} may be asked to present the journal to their '''students''', as a form of teaching about online information
**{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine|Medical students|Students}} are often required to complete a research project or literature review as a part of their studies, parts or all of which could be eligible for submission
*Writing (or inviting scholars to write) '''articles''' about open access publishing, highlighting the journal as an example (e.g. [https://aoasg.org.au/2017/09/05/open-access-medical-content-and-the-worlds-largest-encyclopedia/ AOASG] and [https://theconversation.com/why-getting-medical-information-from-wikipedia-isnt-always-a-bad-idea-59708 ''The Conversation''])
*Notify '''Wikipedia users''' (or editors at [https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Our_projects other Wikimedia projects]) who may be interested in the project on their talk pages ([[Wikipedia:User_talk:AhMedRMaaty#Wikiversity_Journal_of_Medicine.2C_an_open_access_peer_reviewed_journal_with_no_charges.2C_invites_you_to_participate|Example entry]])
*Coordinate and collaborate with '''other journals or organizations''' with similar scope and reaching out to their users/subscribers through their mailing list
*Spread the word with a [[:File:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}_Poster.pdf|poster]]

===Improve systems and procedures===
*Assist in preparing the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Applications|applications for the journal to be listed]] in [[w:List of academic databases and search engines|academic databases and search engines]].

===Other===
*[[WikiJournal Preprints|'''Submit''']] an article to WikiJournal. See also [[WikiJournal User Group/Publishing|publishing guidelines]].
*Check on  [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|'''potential upcoming articles''']] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers#Community review|comment on their ''Discussion pages'']]
*Add a [[WikiJournal User Group/Peer reviewers#Community review|post-publication review]] of an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|'''existing publication''']]
**If errors are found, there are [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_guidelines#Editing_published_works|guidelines for editing published works]]
*[[foundation:Ways_to_Give|'''Donate''' to Wikimedia Foundation]]
*'''Translate''' journal pages into other languages ([[:sv:WikiJournal_of_Medicine|example]])
*Contribute to [[WikiJournal User Group|'''other WikiJournals''']]

==Inviting a submission==
Editors may invite submissions from anyone with suitable expertise. This can act as a way of commissioning an article on a specific topic to replace or update an existing Wikipedia article or as a new article to cover a missing topic. 

For content not already on display in Wikimedia projects:
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation|Article submission invitation template}}
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_confirmation|Article submission confirmation template}}

Articles can be adapted from existing Wikipedia pages (or other Wikimedia content). These are submitted via nomination on [[w:WP:WikiJournal_article_nominations|this page on Wikipedia]]. Changes made in response to peer review are integrated back in the Wikipedia version after publication ([https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:WikiJournal_of_Medicine/The_Hippocampus&amp;oldid=1623175 example]).
:{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_submission_invitation_(wikipedia_page)|Wikipedia Article submission template}}

==Receiving a submission==
As described at the '''[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing|Publishing]]''' page, the corresponding author may write the article online or email it to {{WikiJMed submissions email}}. In the latter case, the editor-in-chief then asks whether the author wants to have their works kept confidential up until publication, mentioning that processing and peer reviewing goes faster when submissions are put directly in the wiki. Still, authors may prefer confidential processing because many journals do not accept submissions that have been in the open at any time, and thereby authors may be harmed by premature disclosure of any or all of an article submission's details. The authors' choice in this matter will determine the pathway of the ensuing procedure.

===Works without need for confidentiality===
In this case, the corresponding author is asked to [[metawiki:Special:CreateAccount|create a WikiMedia account]] and upload the work directly to [[WikiJournal Preprints]].

If authors find it troublesome to upload the works themselves, editors help out in this matter. Editors may also make edits similarly to [[#Editing_published_works|editing published works]].

Submitted works should be added as a row on the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential_upcoming_articles|potential upcoming articles table]]. It is also recommended to mention submission at the talk page of the Wikipedia article of the same topic if such exists already.

===Confidential works===
Discussions related to confidential works need to be held privately, such as by [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board restricted email] to members of the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board]] and [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|peer reviewers]].

===Importing from Wikipedia===
If the submission is an existing Wikipedia article, (via nomination at the [[w:wp:WikiJournal article nominations|'embassy page' in Wikipedia]]) it can be imported via the following steps:
# [[Special:Import]] the Wikipedia page to &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; (including transcluded templates; all previous revisions not necessary for large pages)
# Remove infobox, external links, and categories
# Add {{tlx|Article info}} template to article (works best with VisualEditor) and to discussion page
# Convert all links to links to point to Wikipedia by placing the [[Template:convert links|convert_links template]]:
#* at the top of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[template:convert_links|subst:convert_links]]&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
#* at the bottom of the page: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
# Inform author by adding &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:JAN_talk|subst:JAN talk]]{{!}}article name&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to their Wikipedia talkpage

===Creating location for peer review===
Articles with no Discuss (Talk) page yet should have a link on the right hand menu to 'Create peer review location'. Clicking this should created a page that synchronises the article header information from the corresponding article (containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{ARTICLEPAGENAMEE}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;).

===Creating article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Creating article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Every submitted article will need a Wikidata item to hold structured metadata (authors, dates, publication status etc). If it already has a Wikidata item, it has a link on the right hand menu &quot;QID: Q12345&quot;. If it does not yet have a Wikidata item, it can be created by clicking the link on the right hand menu: &quot;[[wikidata:Special:NewItem|create Wikidata item]]&quot;. Check that this item includes:
*{{P|P1476}}  = article title
*{{P|P31}}    = {{Q|Q580922}}
*{{P|P50}}    = each author's name
**{{P|P1545}} = author order
**{{P|P968}}  = email of corresponding author
*{{P|P1433}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
*{{P|P7347}}  = peer review url
*{{P|P275}}   = license (usually {{Q|Q20007257}})
*{{P|P793 }}  = {{Q|Q76903164}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}}  = date
**{{P|P276}}  = {{Q|Q100164397}}
**{{P|P664}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}}
====Updating  author metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  author metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, for each author:
*{{P|P108}}   = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}   = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}   = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}   = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}}  = username

===Plagiarism checking===
All submitted works should first be checked for plagiarism. The [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1|WMF copyvios tool] will identify plagiarism of any online sources. Write the results on the ''[[Wikiversity:Discuss|Discuss-page]]'' of the submission, such as:
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 0% plagiarism detected &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*&lt;nowiki&gt;{{Pass}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool] flagged some false positives (not regarded as plagiarism) due to references matching wording in published articles / attributed quotes / common stock phrases. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Report from [https://tools.wmflabs.org/copyvios/?lang=en&amp;project=wikiversity&amp;action=search&amp;use_engine=1&amp;turnitin=1 WMF copyvios tool]: 70% chance of plagiarism detected: Paragraph X closeley matches similar in source Y. &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt;
Cases of reverse-plagiarism from Wikipedia (other sites plagiarising a wiki) can often be identified using the [[mw:Who_Wrote_That?|Who Wrote That tool]] to identify when the overlapping text was added to Wikipedia.

==Rejecting articles==
Some submitted manuscripts may be judged by the Editorial Board as not meeting [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Publishing#Criteria_for_inclusion|criteria for publication]]. Preferably, the handling Editor will discuss this within the Editorial Board and allow sufficient time to ensure consensus.

If there is consensus within the Editorial Board that the manuscript cannot meet the criteria for inclusion, even in future revisions of the work, than it may be rejected without further peer review (&quot;desk reject&quot;).

A manuscript might also be rejected after peer review, if the reviewers raise appropriate points which the authors do not want or are unable or unwilling to address. In such instances, if the authors do to pursue further publication, the work can be ''archived'' as no longer active, rather than rejected.

If however, a complete overhaul would later make the article suitable for further peer review (''e.g.'' manuscript initially had no or almost no supporting references, and these are later added), than the work can be resubmitted again through the original submission process.

Editors can find a sample rejection letter [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_declined_for_publication|'''here''']].

Currently, only &quot;nonsense&quot; pages are deleted through the standard deletion process. Whether or not other preprints submitted via the non-confidential pathway on the wiki can be deleted upon request of the authors, is still a matter of debate. Currently, these pages would need to go through the standard [[Wikiversity:Requests for Deletion]] process.

==Arranging peer review==
Articles needing peer review can be seen at [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]]. Submissions require at least two invited external peer reviewers. Editorial comments and spontaneous reviews from interested readers are additionally always valued.

===Responsibility===
Each submitted work is designated to one or more &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors#Coordinator|peer review coordinator]]&quot; among journal editors. The review coordinator is in charge of organising the peer review invitations and monitoring the submission through the peer review process.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Review_coordinator_introduction|Introduction of review coordinators to authors template}}

===Finding peer reviewers===
Suitable peer reviewers can be found by the following methods:
# Authors may recommend suitably qualified peer reviewers to review their submitted manuscript. The peer review coordinator should look at this item in the authorship declaration form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]).
# Check the recent papers cited by the submission.
# Search the submission's keywords on [https://scholia.toolforge.org/topic Scholia]
# Search scholarly databases using key phrases to find recent publications (e.g. [https://scholar.google.com G-Scholar], [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Pubmed], [https://www.scopus.com Scopus], [https://zbmath.org zbMATH Open (for Mathematics)])
# Search by field or keyword in [https://publons.com/researcher/?order_by=verified_reviews_performed_last_12_months Publons]
# Search by abstract or key phrases in [http://jane.biosemantics.org/ JANE database].
#Search by key phrases at [https://www.semanticscholar.org/ semanticscholar]

In general, prioritise contacting reviewers who've published during the last 5 years. In addition to contacting the corresponding authors, the less senior authors often have a higher response rates when contacted. The response rate of the first round of reviewer invitations can inform how many emails will be needed in the second round of invitations. It is worth considering whether to ensure that one of the peer reviewers was not specifically recommended by the authors (peer review coordinator's discretion).

[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer reviewers|Peer reviewers]] must fulfill the following criteria:
* Public contact information, or be willing to be contacted by a Wikimedia volunteer by [[Wikiversity:Peer review verification|peer review verification]] if necessary, wherein only [[Wikiversity:OTRS|trusted participants]] know the identity.
* Expertise in the specific field of the article to be reviewed and be willing to confirm their credentials if requested
* Open identity recommended, but may remain anonymous

Prospective peer reviewers should also state any conflicts of interests if applicable. For example, if the peer reviewer is an author of an article that is used as a reference in the article submission at hand, this should be mentioned among conflicts of interest.

===Inviting a peer reviewer===
Invitation emails to potential peer reviewers are tailored to the associated article submissions and reviewer and may describe why that person in particular was chosen as a reviewer. Reviews should ideally be submitted via the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review submission form]'''. Example templates are included below.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Inviting_a_review|Peer review request template (new content)}}

===Reminding a peer reviewer===
Note that reviewers will often respond to a second email sent a week or two later even if they did not respond to the first.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reminding_a_reviewer|Peer review reminder templates}}

===Confirming a peer reviewer===
Once a reviewer has confirmed that they are willing to review an article, the full manuscript should be provided. The email should contain the article to be reviewed as an attachment, and a link to the url if the pre-print draft is available. Be sure to check if the article ''authors'' have requested to be anonymised for the peer review.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Confirming_a_reviewer|Peer review confirmation template}}

===Importing reviews===
In case a work has already undergone a peer review by another journal or reviewing service, that peer review can count in {{ROOTPAGENAME}} if the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Peer_reviewers#Criteria|peer reviewer criteria]] are met. This requires that the editorial board gets to know the identity of the peer reviewer, and that the reviewer agrees to have it published under creative commons license ([[creativecommons:by-sa/3.0/|CC BY-SA]]). External peer reviews that do not fulfill these criteria should still be uploaded if possible, but do not count to the minimum of 2 independent peer reviews for each article.

==Processing received peer reviews==

=== Checking the review ===
Reviews submitted via the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6X4MbTAz_Vx4G_XDpXKE-KSa7NZsqMtJ71poJSg-mgwxy8g/viewform peer review form] appear in the tracking spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]&lt;!-- Physierkwelt 24-06-07: I see a group with the last message from 2020, which does not redirect me to the Excel spreadsheet--&gt;). Received peer reviews should first be checked for any disclosure of conflicts of interests, even if merely saying &quot;none declared&quot;. Emailed peer reviews should, in addition, be checked for inclusion of:
* The title of the work that is peer reviewed
* Date of the peer review (or last date of peer review period)
* A [[Wikiversity:Uploading_files#Free_licenses|licensing statement that allows usage in Wikiversity]]
If the peer review lacks any of these criteria, a request should be sent to the peer reviewer to supplement to peer review.

===Uploading the review===
Submitted peer reviews will appear in the submitted review spreadsheet (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). Reviews should be added to the &quot;discussion&quot; page of the article after checking whether the reviewer requested anonymity. Ideally, it should be formatted with the {{Tlx|Review}} template. If peer review was submitted as a PDF, then [[Special:Upload|upload the file]] and add the link in the {{Para|pdf}} parameter. 

The author should be informed by email (in the authors declaration responses spreadsheet, access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup])

::{{clickable button 2| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Reviewer_comments_complete|Reviewer comments submitted template}}

===Updating review metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating review metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
When a review is posted to the article discussion page, check to see if the peer reviewer has a wikidata item (if they do not, create one). Add their QID to the {{Para|Q}} parameter on the peer review text. A button should then appear to add the information to Wikidata (you will need to have made 50 previous edits to wikidata for this button to work):
*{{P|P4032}} = peer reviewer
**{{P|P585}} = date (if reviewer doesn't request to see review again after author responses)
**{{P|P580}} = date (if reviewer requests to see review again after author responses, with {{P|P582}} when they agree their comments have been fully addressed)If the peer reviewer was anonymous, you will also need to add some information to the article's wikidata item ([[Wikidata:Q99676829|example]]):
*{{P|P4032}} = {{Q|Q4233718}}
**{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
**{{P|P512}} = degree (if there would be any ambiguity of PhD/MD/PsyD etc)

====Updating  reviewer metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  reviewer metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;====
Additionally, each reviewer should have:
*{{P|P108}}  = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}}  = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}}  = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}}  = ORCID

==Article amendments and publication decision==

=== Author response to review ===
At this stage, the authors of the article are asked to amend the issues brought up in the peer review.
# Editing the article itself to address any issues
# Responding to all comments raised by the reviewers (using the {{Tlx|Response}}template)
Once the article has been revised, the peer reviewer(s) should be notified if they have requested it in the peer reviewer form (access via [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]). The editor can also contact one or more peer reviewers again if they are uncertain whether an author's response fully addressed a reviewer's comments, or if the author has added significant new content that needs to be seen by a reviewer.

:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Second_check_by_a_reviewer_if_requested|Reviewer final check template}}

=== Editorial decision ===
An article is ready to be brought by the peer review coordinator to the editorial board for a decision once:
*Two or more external peer reviewers have given feedback on the article
*The author has addressed all reviewer's comments (peer reviewers may request to see the article again after amendments)
*The peer review coordinator always has the option to invite further reviews if they deem it useful (e.g. if initial peer reviewers disagree with one another) 
{{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal of Medicine
|*Medical content intended for integration into Wikipedia should be checked for compatibility with Wikipedia's [[w:WP:MEDMOS|medical style guidelines]] and [[w:WP:MEDRS|medical referencing guidelines]]. It is recommended to post a notice at [[w:WT:MED|WikiProject Medicine]] for feedback.
}}
In such cases, the peer review coordinator should notify the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board|editorial board]] with a summary of their recommendation to accept, decline, or request further changes. The editorial board will then take one-two weeks to form a consensus on whether the article is suitable for publication. In trivial cases (e.g. if the author has not responded to reviewer comments) the review coordinator can make the decision to decline and inform the editorial board.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Editorial_board_publication_decision_needed|Editorial board notification template}}

==== Accepting articles ====
Articles that are approved by the editorial board for inclusion in the journal go through the following processes:

*[[#Updating_published_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|update the metadata in Wikidata]]
*[[#Page_location|Move the article page]] to &quot;''{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Title''&quot;
*[[#Assignment_of_digital_object_identifier|Assign a digital object identifier]] (DOI)
*[[#Inclusion_in_the_current_volume_and_issue|Include the {{tlc|Article info}} template]] at the top of the current issue of [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]] (source page located under &quot;[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Issues|Journal issues]]&quot; at top menu)
*[[#PDF_files|Create the PDF file]]
*[[#Depositing_XML|Link to an XML file]]
*[[#Inform_the_authors|Inform the corresponding author]] about article acceptance

Article authors may be asked to translate the abstract into other languages they know. A translated abstract should be put in the Wikiversity of that language if available.

==== Declining articles ====
If the decision is made to decline an article, the step are similar:

* Inform the corresponding author about the decision and reasons
* Add to article's Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q98398200}} with the qualifier {{P|P585}} = date
* Add an explanation of the decision to the article's talkpage 
* If the article was adapted from Wikipedia, add a link on the Wikipedia article's talkpage pointing to the review

==Inclusion of approved articles==
[[File:WikiJournal publishing instructions 1.webm|thumb|Accepted article processing steps (turn on captions)]]

=== Updating published article metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating published article metadata in wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
Ensure that the article's Wikidata item is filled in ([[#Creating_article_metadata_in_Wikidata|this data]] should already be present). This will update the information everywhere else. In particular, the following must be added:
*{{P|P356}}  = 10.15347/{{WJX}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
*{{P|P31}}   = {{Q|Q13442814}} (and remove {{Q|Q580922}})
*{{P|P1433}} = {{Q|{{WJQ}}}}
*{{P|P577}}  = date
*{{P|P478}}  = {{WikiJournal current volume}} (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)
*{{P|P433}}  = 1
*{{P|P304}}  = the chronological order of the work for this year
*{{P|P953}}  = URL of final PDF
*{{P|P1104}} = number of pages in the final PDF
Additionally, ideally information should be added ([[Wikidata:Q96317242|example]]):
*{{P|P921}}  = main subject
*{{P|P4510}} = methods/techniques/conceptual frameworks
*{{P|P2860}} = references cited

===Page location===
[[Meta:Help:Moving a page|Move]] the page from &lt;code&gt;WikiJournal_Preprints/Title&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Title&lt;/code&gt; (this will also automatically update in the article's Wikidata record).

===Inclusion in the current volume and issue===
Once the publication date is added on Wikidata, published articles will automatically appear in the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Volume_{{WikiJournal current volume}}_Issue_1|current journal issue]] at midnight UTC (added by [[User:WikiJournalBot]]).

===Assignment of digital object identifier===
Assignment of a DOI to an article is done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://manage.crossref.org/records Metadata Manager page], using the following metadata:

&lt;u&gt;New record submission&lt;/u&gt;
:Type: Journal Article

&lt;u&gt;Article information&lt;/u&gt;
:Article title:        '''title of article'''
:Article DOI:          '''10.15347/{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}.XXX''' (where XXX is the chronological order of the work for this year)
:Article landing URL:  '''full URL of article''' 
&lt;br /&gt;
:Contributors:         '''add each author and their ORCiD''' (affiliation / institution is recommended, but not mandatory if contributor is an independent researcher or does not wish to disclose affiliation)
:Role:                 select if they are the first author or an additional author
&lt;br /&gt;
:Abstract:             paste the plain text version of the article abstract (without wiki markup or references)
:Language of abstract: '''English''' in most cases, unless abstract is also available in non-English language or the article is a translated in its entirety of the accepted version of the English article
&lt;br /&gt;
:Published online date: '''enter the accepted date'''
:Published in print date: (leave blank)
&lt;br /&gt;
:First page number:      (leave blank)
:Article number or ID:   '''X''' (where X is the chronological order of the work for this year)
&lt;br /&gt;
:Funding:                (optional, fill in if author includes information in their submission form or acknowledgement)
:Similarity Check full text URL: '''full URL of article'''
&lt;br /&gt;
:Type of Relationships:  (only used if there is a translated article or correction)
:References:             copy the entire reference section of the article and paste them into this field             

&lt;u&gt;Journal information&lt;/u&gt;
:Online ISSN:   '''{{WikiJournal ISSN nodash}}'''
:Print ISSN:   (leave blank)
:Full title:        '''''{{ROOTPAGENAME}}'''''
:Abbreviated title:   '''''{{Wiki J Xyz}}'''''

&lt;u&gt;Issue information&lt;/u&gt;
:Issue published online date: find the first accepted article's publication date within this issue
:Issue published in print:    (leave blank)
:Issue number:                '''1''' (updated every 6-15 articles if more are published in a year)
:Volume number:               '''{{WikiJournal current volume}}''' (for {{CURRENTYEAR}}; this is updated every year)

Use the &quot;Edit Record&quot; function to correct any mistakes.

&lt;u&gt;User information&lt;/u&gt;
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:e-mail: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''

===Submitting reference metadata===
Logging links to an article's references is also done through [[Wikipedia:Crossref|Crossref]] (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]) via their [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple text form]:

*Copy and paste all the references from the article over to the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Crossref form] and click 'Submit'
*Scroll down to the bottom of the generated page and click 'Deposit'
*Include the information:
:Email address: '''{{ {{WikiJXyz}}_general_contact_email}}'''
:Parent DOI: DOI of the WikiJournal article for which you are adding references
:Username: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]
:Password: see [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/{{WJX}}board editorial board googlegroup]

===Registering article in DOAJ===
Individual articles can be indexed in the Directory of Open Access Journals (log-in details in [https://groups.google.com/g/wikijournal-technical technical editorial googlegroup]) through their [https://doaj.org/publisher/metadata article metadata form].

===Depositing XML===
When a DOI has been obtained from Crossref and added to the article, a link will appear on the right of the article to 'Deposit' the XML. Clicking that link will create an /XML subpage containing the preloaded text &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{#section-h:{{subst:#titleparts:{{subst:PAGENAMEE}}|&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''volume'''{{!}}'''issue'''&lt;nowiki&gt;}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; which, when saved, will format the XML metadata automatically ([[WikiJournal of Medicine/The Cerebellum/XML|Example]]). Alternatively, an XML-file will be sent to {{{{WikiJXyz}} general contact email}} which can be pasted into the /XML subpage. One saved, the link on the right of the article will read 'Download' in stead of 'Deposit'.

===Inform the authors===
Authors should be notified with the article's acceptance and its doi. Authors can assist in several of the post-acceptance steps if they choose by [[#PDF files|formatting the PDF]] and/or [[#Wikipedia inclusion|integrating content into Wikipedia]].
Otherwise a journal editor should do these.
:{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Article_accepted_for_publication|Article acceptance  template}}

==PDF files==
===Creation of PDF files===
[[File:WikiJournal PDF formatting.webm|thumb|Accepted article PDF formatting (turn on captions)]]
# First, the article's {{tlx|Article info}} template should be checked to make sure that the information is up to date
# The PDF should be formatted using the standardised blank template (MS word 2013 or later recommended)
#: {{#ifeq:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|WikiJournal User Group
    |Article formatting templates (.docx): [{{WikiJMed_PDF_template}} WikiJMed] / [{{WikiJSci_PDF_template}} WikiJSci] / [{{WikiJHum_PDF_template}} WikiJHum]
    |{{clickable button 2| url={{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} | Accepted article formatting template (.docx)}}
   }}
# Copy the article's material from the wiki page into the docx template
#* Text sections and publication data (e.g. date) are copied and pasted from the wiki page into the docx template. Pasting with the &quot;Merge formatting&quot; option should keep source formatting but use the font and text size of the template.
#* Wiki links and hyperlinks to references should be preserved when copying from the wiki page into the docx template (in blue color but not underscored).
#* Figures should be pasted from the full-resolution versions on Wikimedia commons (not the lower-resolution previews shows on article wiki pages)
# Use Ctrl+H to find-replace &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;space&lt;/code&gt; (WikiMarkup often includes non-breaking spaces)
# Remove &quot;↑ Jump to&quot; from reference list
# File &gt; Options &gt; Advanced &gt; Image Size and Quality &gt; &quot;Do Not Compress images in file&quot; (retain full-resolution images)
# File &gt; Save as &gt; docx
# File &gt; Save as &gt; PDF (avoid [[Wikipedia:Portable_Document_Format#Software|PDF &quot;printing&quot;]] since this can lead to misformatting)
# Final PDF chacks: zoom in on figures to confirm resolution, test a selection of hyperlinks, look for any misformatted or overlapping text, and compare overall formatting against a previously published article.

===Uploading PDF files to the journal===
#Upload the docx file to {{#switch:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}
 |WikiJournal User Group = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder] / [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Medicine = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B4LQzkvkbO9YYlZRZDUxVlNtdW8 WikiJMed docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Science = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1oi98pP7oO9CyAeQUFOJDr4pj3EkcImQS WikiJSci docx folder]
 |WikiJournal of Humanities = [https://drive.google.com/open?id=1gvpVH8_ajSKiQ2rp2eUjuAG6pDMvAdUl WikiJHum docx folder]
}}
#[[Special:Upload|Upload the PDF file to Wikiversity]]. Name the PDF the exact same as the article title (omit any &lt;code&gt;:&lt;/code&gt; characters, since they can't be included in filenames)
#*On the file page, in stead of {{tlc|Information}}, use &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:InformationQ|Q1234568}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; using the article's Wikidata QID.

===Updating PDF files===
When a minor update to an article is needed, the docx version (linked from the bottom of the wiki page) should be used as the starting template, with changes copied across from the article's wiki page.

For major updates, it may be best to create the document again from scratch using the blank [{{{{WikiJXyz}}_PDF_template}} .docx template].

The updated PDF can be uploaded by going to the &lt;code&gt;File:[Article title].pdf&lt;/code&gt; page and clicking &quot;Upload a new version of this file&quot;.

==Wikipedia inclusion==
Different [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Publishing#Publication_formats|types of articles]] have differing potential for Wikipedia integration. Articles that review and summarise existing knowledge from other [[w:wp:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] can be copied as content into Wikipedia. [[w:wp:Original research|Original research]] cannot be copied into Wikipedia. Any content integrated into Wikipedia will then be updatable over time in the same manner as any [[Wikipedia:Ownership of content|other Wikipedia content]]. Please note that it is up to the consensus of the Wikipedia editor community as to whether to accept, edit or omit any added content.

===As content===
*Articles written in an encyclopedia review format may be fully copied into Wikipedia. Such Wikipedia articles also should also have the &lt;code&gt;{{[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]}}&lt;/code&gt; template added at the beginning of their reference section. ([[wikipedia:Cerebellum|example]])
*Short articles written in a mini review format may be added as a section of a relevant Wikipedia article and should be added to the category [[:wikipedia:category:Wikipedia articles with sections published in {{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}]]. ([[wikipedia:Gene#Structure and function|example]])
*Images should be added to relevant articles, as long as they [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:No original research#Original images|do not illustrate unpublished ideas or arguments]]. The WikiJournal article should be [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|cited as a reference]] in the image caption in Wikipedia. ([[wikipedia:Steroidogenic enzyme|example]])
Only encyclopedic content should be integrated into the encyclopedia. In all cases, any [[w:wp:OR|discussion, speculation or outlook sections]] should be omitted from the version integrated into Wikipedia.

;Process
*The author(s) of the WikiJournal article should be invited to perform this integration. 
*The edit summaries should ideally include a link to the work in WikiJournal and specify the CC license (for at least the first edit summary), E.g.:
*:&quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Adding/Updating section XYZ from [[v:&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}&lt;nowiki&gt;/...]], [[doi:10.15347/&lt;/nowiki&gt;{{WJX|wjx|lc=true}}/{{CURRENTYEAR}}&lt;nowiki&gt;.XXX]] under a CC-BY-SA license&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot;&lt;br&gt; Note: check relevant section, link, DOI, and license
*Changes in the material to adapt to Wikipedia's format may include:
** Decide if any parts of the WikiJournal article need to be omited from the Wikipedia page (original research / opinions / perspectives / conclusions)
** If a current Wikipedia page on the topic already exists decide which parts to keep
** If an image appears only in Wikiversity but not in the Wikipedia article, move it to Wikimedia Commons: [[Commons:Commons:Moving files to Commons|Moving files to Commons]]
** Remove &lt;code&gt;w:&lt;/code&gt; prefixes in links (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
** Replace &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz|xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; with &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[xyz]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (tidier, but not strictly necessary)
* Add to the Wikidata item: {{P|P793}} = {{Q|Q17853087}} with the qualifiers
**{{P|P585}} = date
**{{P|P4969}} = {{Q|Q52}}
**{{P|P2699}} = URL of Wikipedia page
* Add the &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;{{&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[w:template:Academic peer reviewed|Academic peer reviewed]]&lt;nowiki&gt;}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; template in the References and at the top of the Talk page

==Scientific misconduct==
Any person suspecting [[Wikipedia:Scientific misconduct|scientific misconduct]] of any article should [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Contact|contact the editor-in-chief]] or an [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors#Editorial_board_members|editorial board members]], who in turn should bring any suspected scientific misconduct to the knowledge of the entire board. [[Wikipedia:Committee on Publication Ethics|COPE]] has flowcharts for different types of situations: [https://publicationethics.org/resources/flowcharts].

Upon suspected scientific misconduct by an author or reviewer, the next step is generally that an editor contacts the corresponding author or reviewer to ask for an explanation. COPE has examples of letters to authors in such cases [http://publicationethics.org/resources/ sample-letters]. Such letters should not accuse authors or reviewers, but should rather state the facts clearly, and allow them to explain their actions before coming to a decision.

;See also
[[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Ethics_statement#Contact_and_dispute_resolution|Ethics statement]]

==Adding and removing journal editors==
===Adding editorial board members===
Once an editorial board member applicant has clear consensus ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section 3. Appointment|relevant bylaws]]), they can be accepted to the board by the following steps.

Preferably paste these points as a checklist &lt;section begin=checklist_board/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
| url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_board_member|Onboarding email template}}
#Add to the online editorial board list ([[WikiJournal_of_Science/Editorial board|Sci]] [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Editorial board|Med]], [[WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Editorial board|Hum]]), either directly or as follows:
:# Add the person's information in Wikidata if not already included there.
:# Copy their information over to [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including their Wikidata QID)
:# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQboard|default=Q75674277}}|relevant editorial board]] on Wikidata
# Direct-add them to the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/add via this link]) which will grant them access to the private page only visible to board members
# Welcome them at the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]]
&lt;section end=checklist_board/&gt;

===Removing editorial board members===
Members can be removed from the editorial board by their own request (either completely, or changing to be an associate editor) or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal from the {{WJX}}board mailing list ([https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!managemembers/{{WJX}}board/members/active via this link])
# Moving their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial board|editorial board page]] to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editorial_board#Previous_board_members|Previous board members section]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed 

===Adding associate editors===
Associate editors are accepted by consensus of the editorial board, and their addition follows these steps 

Preferably paste these points as a checklist on the talk page: &lt;section begin=checklist_assoc/&gt;
# [[{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Send a welcome message and confirm their preferred email address]] (usually in their provided website link, else via [[Special:EmailUser]])&lt;br&gt;{{clickable button 2
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/{{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}/Editorial_guidelines/Message_templates#Onboarding_a_new_associate_editor|Onboarding email template}}
#Add to the online editorial board list ([[WikiJournal_of_Science/Associate editors|Sci]] [[WikiJournal_of_Medicine/Associate editors|Med]], [[WikiJournal_of_Humanities/Associate editors|Hum]]), either directly or as follows:
:# Add the person's information in Wikidata if not already included there.
:# Copy their information over to the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]] using the {{tlx|Editor info}} template (including Wikidata QID)
:# The above step will create a button that will update the [[d:{{WJQassoc|default=Q104167540}}|relevant associate editor list]] on Wikidata
# Email the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they are informed
# Finally, move the application to [[Talk:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Editors/Archive_{{&lt;includeonly&gt;subst:&lt;/includeonly&gt;CURRENTYEAR}}|this year's archive page]] &lt;section end=checklist_assoc/&gt;
Note that associate editors are ''not'' added to the {{WJX}}board mailing list and so do not gain access to journal passwords or confidential information.

===Removing associate editors===
Members can be removed from the associate editor team by their own request, they can request to join the editorial board, or can be voted out ([[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Bylaws#Section_3._Removal relevant bylaws]]).
# Removal of their information from the [[{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Associate editors|associate editor page]]
# Removal of any social media accesses that they were granted
# Send a confirmation email to them and cc in the {{WJX}}board mailing list so that they and the board are informed

===Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata &lt;span class=&quot;anchor&quot; id=&quot;Updating  editor metadata in Wikidata&quot;&gt;&lt;/span&gt;===
If needed:
*{{P|P98}} = editor
**{{P|P580}} = date
Additionally, to each editor:
*{{P|P108}} = current employers (e.g. university or organisation)
**{{P|P6424}} or {{P|P1416}} = affiliation (e.g. department)
*{{P|P101}} = areas of expertise
*{{P|P856}} = faculty website or equivalent
*{{P|P496}} = ORCID
*{{P|P4174}} = username

==Social media accounts==
===Adding admins===
Editors interested in being an admin for a journal's [https://www.facebook.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Facebook] and [https://twitter.com/{{WikiJXyz|default=WikiJSci}} Twitter] accounts should contact the Editor in Chief and/or current social media team. Admins can be either added directly by the EiC, or by consensus of the current social media admins. New admins should be added to the [https://groups.google.com/forum/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=footer#!forum/wikijournal-social-media social media admin google group].

Due to the very public nature of social media, there is a two-week probationary period before being being given account passwords:
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 5 social media posts] over a 2 week period
* [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd7UOiidYOAzkBfAVBe8eWwE5mbmvRF6wR3NDfTgnj0dDdBFQ/viewform Suggest 10 accounts] to follow 
Twitter is especially sensitive, since a single account password is shared, whereas for Facebook users can be added as having 'editor' permissions to post content.

===Recommended use of social media===
General guidelines:
*Be sure anything shared/reposted aligns with journal principles
*When citing a publication, always include the doi
*Include an image whenever possible
Examples posts:
*A catchy summary of published WikiJournal article
*Retweet article summary from other WikiJournal that may be relevant to audience
*Any info from WikiJournal site (e.g. aims / scope / editor info etc)
*Relevant news articles from other outlets
*Retweet relevant posts (about e.g. open access, Wikipedia, outreach, science communications)


[[Category:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:WikiJournal guidelines]]</text>
      <sha1>dqceymriwz5sq3q0s9nd9nodudq14j7</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Plant Divisions (Phyla)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>235272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832481</id>
      <parentid>2832084</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T21:04:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-48937-78</username>
        <id>3110831</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bryophyta */ Removed &quot;It mostly grows on lakes&quot;. This doesn't make sense and was probably added in error</comment>
      <origin>2832481</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6184" sha1="1g5dlktlblvgfukdjlja09ndf7x2avw" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diversity of plants (Streptophyta) version 2.png|thumb|300px|right|A sample of plant diversity.]]

In botany, the equivalent of a Phylum is called a division. The Kingdom Plantae is divided into 13 Divisions. A Division (pl. Phyla) is the largest formal major grouping within plant taxonomy below kingdoms. 

This list is presented in alphabetical order, and not in any systematic/evolutionary arrangement.

Science is by no means static. There are arguments of all sizes and shapes about the taxonomy of the Plant Divisions. Other sources may combine or split these listed Divisions. However, at this time, the list presented here should stand in good stead for an introduction to the topic of plant diversity.

There are approximately 380,000 plant species that have been described by science.

This list tries to give the following information on each Division:
*Division Name
*A link to a subpage discussing that Phylum in more detail (if it yet exists)
*Name Meaning (in English)
*An English Common Name, where one is in regular use
*Distinguishing characteristics of plants within the Division
*An approximate number of species described within that Division. Since botany does not stand still, this number can change.

You can also see [[Introduction to Taxonomy]] for more on that topic.

==Anthocerotophyta==
[[Image:Hornwort (3144429129).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hornworts.]]
[[/Anthocerotophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Anthoceros-like plant

English Common Name: Hornworts

Major distinguishing characteristics: Horn-shaped sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 100-300 or more
==Bryophyta==
[[Image:Mose09.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Moss, a bryophyte.]]
[[/Bryophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Bryum-like plant, moss plant

English Common Name: Moss

Major distinguishing characteristics: Persistent branched sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 12,000

==Charophyta==
[[Image:Chara overview.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Chara'', a Charophyte.]]
[[/Charophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Chara-like plant

English Common Name: Charophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 1,000

==Chlorophyta==
[[image:Bulletin de l'Acadmie impriale des sciences de St.-Ptersbourg (20431048865).jpg|thumb|100px|right|A Chlorophyte.]]
[[/Chlorophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Yellow-green plant

English Common Name: Chlorophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics: mainly autotrophs with exceptions and have the same chlorophyll a and b pigments as &quot;higher&quot; plant divisions

Approximate number of species described: 8,000

==Cycadophyta==
[[Image:Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Unidentified cycad in greenhouse.]]
[[/Cycadophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Cycas-like plant, palm-like plant

English Common Name: Cycads

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds, crown of compound leaves

Approximate number of species described: 100 - 200

==Ginkgophyta==
[[Image:Gingko biloba2.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gingko biloba''.]]
[[/Ginkgophyta/]]

Name Meaning: Ginkgo-like plant

English Common Name: Ginkgo, maidenhair tree

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds not protected by fruit

Approximate number of species described: 1 living, about 50 extinct

==Glaucophyta==
[[Image:Glaucophyte.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A glaucophyte.]]
[[/Glaucophyta/]] 

Name Meaning: Blue-green plant

English Common Name: Glaucophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics:

Approximate number of species described: 13

==Gnetophyta==
[[Image:Gnetum scandens (6780786863).jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Gnetum scandens''.]]
Gnetophyta

Name Meaning: Gnetum-like plant

English Common Name: Gnetophytes

Major distinguishing characteristics: Seeds and woody vascular system with vessels.

Approximate number of species described: 70

==Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)==
[[Image:Clubmoss - Flickr - pellaea (1).jpg|thumb|100px|right|Clubmoss.]]
[[/Lycopodiophyta (Lycophyta)/]]

Name Meaning: Lycopodium-like plants, wolf plant

English Common Name: Clubmosses, spikemosses

Major distinguishing characteristics: Microphyll leaves, vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 1290 living

==Magnoliophyta (Anthophyta)==
[[Image:Sweetbay Magnolia Magnolia virginiana Flower Closeup 2242px.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Magnolia virginiana''.]]
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant Magnoliophyta]

Name Meaning: Magnolia-like plant

English Common Name: Flowering plants, angiosperms

Major distinguishing characteristics: Flowers and fruit, vascular system with vessels

Approximate number of species described: 300,000

==Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)==
[[Image:Liverwort Ferndale Park.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Liverwort.]]
[[wikipedia:Marchantiophyta|Marchantiophyta (Hepatophyta)]]

Name Meaning: Marchantia-like plant, liver plant

English Common Name: Liverworts

Major distinguishing characteristics: Ephemeral unbranched sporophytes, no vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 9,000

==Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)==
[[Image:Taxus wallichiana kz1.jpg|thumb|100px|right|''Taxus wallichiana'', the Himalayan Yew, a conifer.]]
[[/Pinophyta (Coniferophyta)/]]

Name Meaning: Pinus-like plant, cone-bearing plant

English Common Name: Conifers

Major distinguishing characteristics: Cones containing seeds and wood composed of tracheids

Approximate number of species described: 629 living

==Polypodiophyta (Monilophyta)==
[[Image:Tree Fern.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tree fern fronds and fiddleneck (growing young frond).]]
[[wikipedia:Fern|Polypodiophyta]] (Monophyte) 

Once called [[Pteridophyta]] (outdated! The sub-divisions Lycopodiophyte and Euphyllophyte have been differentiated) 

Name Meaning: Many foot plant, Polypodium-like plant

English Common Name: ferns, horsetails

Major distinguishing characteristics: Prothallus gametophytes and vascular system

Approximate number of species described: 9000

==Other Resources==
*[http://tolweb.org/Green_plants/2382 Tree of Life, Green Plants]
*[http://eol.org/pages/281/overview Encyclopedia of life, Plantae]
*[[Animal Phyla]] a companion piece to this one 

==References==
* [[Wikipedia:Phylum]]
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Botany]]</text>
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      <text bytes="14209" sha1="3mlx092swhhtwwkq0cg65t20lvcfyq3" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 5: Functionalist theory and self-tracking|fifth}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial:
# explores motivational theory and practical applications using&lt;!-- which can be used to understand why people behave the way they do - and how they can improve their goal striving and satisfaction / extend on content covered in Chapters 07 and 08 of [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018)]] --&gt;:
## '''functionalist theory of motivation''' with university student motivations as an example
## '''self-tracking''' as a form of feedback and self-regulation
# demonstrates use of '''Google Scholar''' to identify the top references on a topic

==Functionalist theory==
# Models of motivation considered so far (e.g., models of needs) assume universality of motivation, and mostly don't recognise two key issues:
## People may perform the same behaviour but with different motivations
## There is often more than one motivation (reason) why someone performs a behaviour
# The '''functionalist''' perspective of motivation (Clary &amp; Snyder, 1999) proposes that:
## Behaviours serve different functions (or goals) for different people
## The match between a person's: (a) motivations and (b) outcomes determines (c) [[satisfaction]] and likelihood of continuing
# A good match between motivations and outcomes leads to satisfaction and retention (or intention to continue), whereas if motivations are not well matched by corresponding outcomes this will lead to low satisfaction and heightened risk of drop-out
# The take-home messages about motivation from a functional perspective are that:
## Motivations are multiple and complex (not singular and simple)
## Motivational profiles differ between people
## The match between motivations and outcomes predicts satisfaction which predicts likelihood to continue
# In addition, our motivational profiles fluctuate over time and between contexts
# The following exercise demonstrates how a functionalist approach to motivation can be applied

==University student motivations==
{{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
'''Activity: University student motivations'''
# Consider:
##&quot;'''Why''' are '''you''' at university?&quot;—or, more generally, 
## '''“Why do students go to uni?”'''
# Develop a class [[w:Mind map|mind map]] of the main underlying motivations for attending university. Think and respond honestly—&lt;u&gt;''why''&lt;/u&gt; are students &lt;u&gt;'''''really'''''&lt;/u&gt; at university?
## Answers are likely to cover a wide range of human motives, but as the map develops, look for underlying themes and group similar motivations together.
## Past experience &lt;!-- with this exercise --&gt; and previous research finds that the motivations are likely to fall within these six categories:
##* '''Career/Qualifications''' - for the degree, so I can get a better job etc.
##* '''Self-Exploration/Learning''' - for the learning, curiousity, knowledge-seeking etc.
##* '''Social Opportunities''' - to meet people, make and explore friendships, enjoy social environment
##* '''Altruism''' - to become better able to help people, help society, help the planet etc.
##* '''Social Pressure''' - expectations of family, friends, society etc.
##* '''Rejection of Alternatives''' - better than doing nothing, working etc.
&lt;!-- (Note: Factor analytic research by Neill (2008) has not found psychometric support for the rejection of alternatives factor, but it has for the other five factors). --&gt;
# Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdjfdQ7owYTDGTU4hNmBKRpyL_DZt4IilYZ4v-d12zNAKQiGA/viewform?usp=sf_link University Student Motivation] survey
# Discuss results
&lt;!-- # Note and discuss:
## Where do you differ notably in your motivational profile from the university average? Who has a notable discrepancy that they would like to share?
##If a motivation factor was rated higher than its corresponding outcome, this is likely to contribute to dissatisfaction and risk of drop-out.
## If any outcome is rated higher than corresponding motivations, the experience of university is &quot;over-delivering&quot; in this area (i.e., you are getting more than expected) which may or may not contribute to satisfaction (depending on how valuable that outcome is to you).
Include more info about Kerry Thomas' 4th year study with Lifeline and Red Cross Blood Donation study --&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Self-tracking==
# What are these objects? What do they have in common?
&lt;div style=&quot;overflow-x:scroll;overflow-y:hidden;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;width:1560px;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Bullet-Journal-by-Matt-Ragland.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Pedometer.JPG|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Moodring2.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:What's the Right Weight for My Height? (4254117120).jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Blutdruckmessgeraet.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Elite HRV - Heart Rate Variability Reading.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Black Nike FuelBand.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Blood Glucose Testing.JPG|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
# The objects are:
## mirror
## bullet-journal
## stop watch
## mood ring
## bathroom scales
## blood pressure monitor
## heart rate variability monitor
## exercise activity tracker
## blood glucose monitor&lt;!-- , smart pill --&gt;
# What they have in common:
## They are self-tracking tools
# What are they for?
## Learning about and improving ourselves
# 21st century mobile technology tools offer an expanding array of self-monitoring tools. This presents an opportunity and a challenge:&lt;br&gt;How can optimal use be made of self-tracking?
# Discuss:
## What is '''self-tracking'''?
### Self-tracking turns aspects of everyday life into data that can inform self-regulation
### Self-tracking can be used as feedback to guide self-regulation and behaviour change
## What are some examples of self-tracking? What self-tracking do you do?  &lt;!-- # What have you discovered through self-tracking? --&gt; What are you curious to try? &lt;!--  What could you discover? --&gt;
# '''Watch''':
## [https://youtu.be/OrAo8oBBFIo?si=E4HZtl559TYKPiUb&amp;t=16 The quantified self] (Gary Wolf, TED@Cannes, 2010, YouTube, 4:49 mins (finish at 5:05 mins))
## [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NP5okzCjrj0 The quantified self: Data gone wild?] (PBS NewsHour, 2013, YouTube, 5:45 mins)
# '''Discuss''':
## What are the potential '''benefits'''?
### enhanced self-awareness, self-knowledge, empowerment
### steady stream of data-driven feedback
### positive effects of social comparison (e.g., increased motivation)
## What are the potential '''problems'''?
### externalises motivation
### can heighten sense of overwhelm and distress
### can become obsessive/addictive
### negative effects of social comparison (e.g., low self-esteem)
# Key idea: Self-tracking turns aspects of everyday life into data that can inform self-regulation. It involves observing and recording your own behaviour, thoughts, feelings or performance.

==Google Scholar==
Goal: Identify the best academic resources about a target topic, using these [http://scholar.google.com Google Scholar] search tips:
&lt;!-- # [http://scholar.google.com Google Scholar] e.g., [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=self-tracking+motivation self-tracking motivation] (search) --&gt;
# '''Citation rates''' - focus on sources with high citation rates (# of citations / years since published)
# '''Authors''' - check the publications by top authors on the topic
# '''Related articles''' - for top sources, check out &quot;related articles&quot;
# '''Link to libraries''' - sync search results to UC Library holdings for quick access to restricted publications
## Login using Google Account
## Settings: Three bars (top-left) - Settings - Library links
## Search for institution name (&quot;UC Library&quot; is the main one, but also &quot;University of Canberra&quot; for Proquest)
## Select target libraries
## Save
## Search results will now show links to full-text resources held in the institutional library
# [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html#library '''Storing citations'''] - save favourite publications to a folder. They can be found via My Library.
# '''APA style citations''' - double-quote button. Provides a good start, but may need correcting, italics, and doesn't provide doi
# [https://scholar.google.com/scholar_alerts '''Setting up alerts'''] - follow new publications about topics or authors of interest. &quot;Create alert&quot; at bottom of search.
&lt;!-- ## [https://canberra.libanswers.com/faq/192648 More info] --&gt;
&lt;!-- # Filtering by year
# '''Related articles'''
# '''Citation searching''' (with Google Scholar or [http://ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/login?url=http://www.scopus.com/home.url Scopus]) --&gt;
&lt;!-- 
# [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html#alerts Setting up alerts] --&gt;
# '''Advanced search''' - Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) and wildcards (?, *)
# '''Major reviews''' - Search for meta-analyses and systematic reviews
## Include &quot;review&quot; or &quot;meta-analysis&quot; in the search term to identify major reviews on the topic
# More info about Google Scholar:
## [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/about.html About]
## [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html Search tips]
## [https://guides.library.ucsc.edu/c.php?g=745384&amp;p=5361954 Advanced search]
# Other possibly useful search strategies:
## Search directly in [[Motivation and emotion/Journals|key journals]]
### Topic-specific - e.g., [https://link.springer.com/journal/11031 Motivation and Emotion]
### Major psychological review journals e.g., [https://www.annualreviews.org/journal/psych Annual Review of Psychology]
## [https://www.scopus.com/ Scopus]
## [https://scite.ai scite.ai]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
&lt;!--
Clary, E. G., &amp; Snyder, M. (1991). A functional analysis of altruism and prosocial behavior: The case of volunteerism. In M. Clark (Ed.), ''Review of personality and social psychology: Vol 12. Pro-social behavior'' (pp. 119-148). Sage.
--&gt;
Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., Miene, P. (1998). [http://www.comm.umn.edu/~akoerner/courses/5431-S13/Clary%20et%20al.%20(1998).pdf Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach]. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''74''(6), 516–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1516

Clary, E. G., &amp; Snyder, M. (1999). [http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/8/5/156.full.pdf The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations]. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''8''(5), 156–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00037

}}

==Recording==
* [Tutorial 5] (2026)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b638e341c0404b7495a06ec2f4ee4889 Tutorial 5] (2025)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/09ecf4ffc3634700bbeebc40375ed75a Tutorial 5] (2024)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/80241f122b874ad48c34707e1362faa4 Tutorial 5] (2023)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9c4925f4e1254be7bac2c1d37915e289 Tutorial 5] (2022)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/dd3e4ff54b6b427ba84d6f94285129ac Tutorial 5] (2021)
--&gt;

==See also==
&lt;!--
;Additional tutorial material
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
;Wikipedia
* [[w:Biofeedback|Biofeedback]]
* [[w:Quantified Self|Quantified Self]]
* [[w:Uses and gratifications theory|Uses and gratifications theory]]

;Wikiversity
* [[Feedback]]
* [[Self-regulation]]
* [[Volunteer motivation]]

;Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Lectures/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] 

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]] (Next tutorial)

;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]

==External links==
* [https://x.com/BobTroia Bob Troia] (X) 
* [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=bullet+journal+habit+tracker Bullet journals] (Google image search)
* [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/sporty/fitness-trackers-and-cold-water-swimming/13512108 Do fitness trackers make you more active?] (ABC Radio National - Sporty podcast, 2021)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V08dWCtDyd8 The rise of the quantified self] (Mashable Brand X, 2014, YouTube, 1:48 mins)
&lt;!-- # An applied example: Workplace pedometer programs - http://www.10000steps.org.au, http://www.gettheworldmoving.com/ --&gt;
&lt;!-- Find another video about pedometer based social media competitions --&gt;
&lt;!--
;Articles/Links
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FESv2CgyJag The quantified self: How wearable sensors expand human potential] (Lauren Constantini, TEDxMileHigh, 2014) (10:55)
# [http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/37784/?mod=MagOur The measured life]
# [http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2011/04/07/adventures-in-self-surveillance-aka-the-quantified-self-aka-extreme-navel-gazing/ Adventures in Self-Surveillance, aka The Quantified Self, aka Extreme Navel-Gazing]
# [http://quantifiedself.com The quantified self]
# [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/personal-science/201102/growth-quantified-self Growth of quantified self]
# [http://opensource.com/health/11/8/open-health-quantified-self Open health with quantified self]
# [http://www.launch.is/blog/bringing-quantified-self-to-the-masses-habit-labs-creates-ga.html Bringing quantified self to the masses: Habit labs creates games to make live healthier]
# [http://www.fastcodesign.com/1665351/can-jawbone-really-made-people-healtheir-with-their-up-wristband Jawbone UP tracker]
# [http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1641899/App-to-track-your-every-move App to track your every move] (PlaceMe) - [https://plus.google.com/111091089527727420853/posts/3iqjCACkBuz]
# [http://news.cnet.com/8301-33620_3-57602925-278/how-my-body-rejected-activity-trackers-and-the-quantified-self/?google_editors_picks=true How my body rejected activity trackers and the 'quantified self'] (Danny Sullivan, 2013, CNET) --&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking]]</text>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="14280" sha1="5xt2l07cvv1bt92arjo286s8nrm3i25" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 5: Functionalist theory and self-tracking|fifth}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial:
# explores motivational theory and practical applications using&lt;!-- which can be used to understand why people behave the way they do - and how they can improve their goal striving and satisfaction / extend on content covered in Chapters 07 and 08 of [[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve (2018)]] --&gt;:
## '''functionalist theory of motivation''' with university student motivations as an example
## '''self-tracking''' as a form of feedback and self-regulation
# demonstrates use of '''Google Scholar''' to identify the top references on a topic

==Functionalist theory==
# Models of motivation considered so far (e.g., models of needs) assume universality of motivation, and mostly don't recognise two key issues:
## People may perform the same behaviour but with different motivations
## There is often more than one motivation (reason) why someone performs a behaviour
# The '''functionalist''' perspective of motivation (Clary &amp; Snyder, 1999) proposes that:
## Behaviours serve different functions (or goals) for different people
## The match between a person's: (a) motivations and (b) outcomes determines (c) [[satisfaction]] and likelihood of continuing
# A good match between motivations and outcomes leads to satisfaction and retention (or intention to continue), whereas if motivations are not well matched by corresponding outcomes this will lead to low satisfaction and heightened risk of drop-out
# The take-home messages about motivation from a functional perspective are that:
## Motivations are multiple and complex (not singular and simple)
## Motivational profiles differ between people
## The match between motivations and outcomes predicts satisfaction which predicts likelihood to continue
# In addition, our motivational profiles fluctuate over time and between contexts
# The following exercise demonstrates how a functionalist approach to motivation can be applied

==University student motivations==
{{anchor|Activity}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
'''Activity: University student motivations'''
# Consider:
##&quot;'''Why''' are '''you''' at university?&quot;—or, more generally, 
## '''“Why do students go to uni?”'''
# Develop a class [[w:Mind map|mind map]] of the main underlying motivations for attending university. Think and respond honestly—&lt;u&gt;''why''&lt;/u&gt; are students &lt;u&gt;'''''really'''''&lt;/u&gt; at university?
## Answers are likely to cover a wide range of human motives, but as the map develops, look for underlying themes and group similar motivations together.
## Past experience &lt;!-- with this exercise --&gt; and previous research finds that the motivations are likely to fall within these six categories:
##* '''Career/Qualifications''' - for the degree, so I can get a better job etc.
##* '''Self-Exploration/Learning''' - for the learning, curiousity, knowledge-seeking etc.
##* '''Social Opportunities''' - to meet people, make and explore friendships, enjoy social environment
##* '''Altruism''' - to become better able to help people, help society, help the planet etc.
##* '''Social Pressure''' - expectations of family, friends, society etc.
##* '''Rejection of Alternatives''' - better than doing nothing, working etc.
&lt;!-- (Note: Factor analytic research by Neill (2008) has not found psychometric support for the rejection of alternatives factor, but it has for the other five factors). --&gt;
# Complete the [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdjfdQ7owYTDGTU4hNmBKRpyL_DZt4IilYZ4v-d12zNAKQiGA/viewform?usp=sf_link University Student Motivation] survey
# Discuss results
&lt;!-- # Note and discuss:
## Where do you differ notably in your motivational profile from the university average? Who has a notable discrepancy that they would like to share?
##If a motivation factor was rated higher than its corresponding outcome, this is likely to contribute to dissatisfaction and risk of drop-out.
## If any outcome is rated higher than corresponding motivations, the experience of university is &quot;over-delivering&quot; in this area (i.e., you are getting more than expected) which may or may not contribute to satisfaction (depending on how valuable that outcome is to you).
Include more info about Kerry Thomas' 4th year study with Lifeline and Red Cross Blood Donation study --&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Self-tracking==
# What are these objects? What do they have in common?
&lt;div style=&quot;overflow-x:scroll;overflow-y:hidden;&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;width:1560px;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Is this me mental disorder of looking.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Bullet-Journal-by-Matt-Ragland.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Pedometer.JPG|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Moodring2.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:What's the Right Weight for My Height? (4254117120).jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Blutdruckmessgeraet.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Elite HRV - Heart Rate Variability Reading.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Black Nike FuelBand.jpg|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;[[File:Blood Glucose Testing.JPG|x90px]]&lt;!--
--&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
# The objects are:
## mirror
## bullet-journal
## stop watch
## mood ring
## bathroom scales
## blood pressure monitor
## heart rate variability monitor
## exercise activity tracker
## blood glucose monitor&lt;!-- , smart pill --&gt;
# What they have in common:
## They are self-tracking tools
# What are they for?
## Learning about and improving ourselves
# 21st century mobile technology tools offer an expanding array of self-monitoring tools. This presents an opportunity and a challenge:&lt;br&gt;How can optimal use be made of self-tracking?
# Discuss:
## What is '''self-tracking'''?
### Self-tracking turns aspects of everyday life into data that can inform self-regulation
### Self-tracking can be used as feedback to guide self-regulation and behaviour change
## What are some examples of self-tracking? What self-tracking do you do?  &lt;!-- # What have you discovered through self-tracking? --&gt; What are you curious to try? &lt;!--  What could you discover? --&gt;
# '''Watch''':
## [https://youtu.be/OrAo8oBBFIo?si=E4HZtl559TYKPiUb&amp;t=16 The quantified self] (Gary Wolf, TED@Cannes, 2010, YouTube, 4:49 mins (finish at 5:05 mins))
## [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NP5okzCjrj0 The quantified self: Data gone wild?] (PBS NewsHour, 2013, YouTube, 5:45 mins)
# '''Discuss''':
## What are the potential '''benefits'''?
### enhanced self-awareness, self-knowledge, empowerment
### steady stream of data-driven feedback
### positive effects of social comparison (e.g., increased motivation)
## What are the potential '''problems'''?
### externalises motivation
### can heighten sense of overwhelm and distress
### can become obsessive/addictive
### negative effects of social comparison (e.g., low self-esteem)
# Key idea: Self-tracking turns aspects of everyday life into data that can inform self-regulation. It involves observing and recording your own behaviour, thoughts, feelings or performance.

==Google Scholar==
Goal: Identify the best academic resources about a target topic, using these [http://scholar.google.com Google Scholar] search tips:
&lt;!-- # [http://scholar.google.com Google Scholar] e.g., [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;as_sdt=0%2C5&amp;q=self-tracking+motivation self-tracking motivation] (search) --&gt;
# '''Citation rates''' - focus on sources with high citation rates (# of citations / years since published)
# '''Authors''' - check the publications by top authors on the topic
# '''Related articles''' - for top sources, check out &quot;related articles&quot;
# '''Link to libraries''' - sync search results to UC Library holdings for quick access to restricted publications
## Login using Google Account
## Settings: Three bars (top-left) - Settings - Library links
## Search for institution name (&quot;UC Library&quot; is the main one, but also &quot;University of Canberra&quot; for Proquest)
## Select target libraries
## Save
## Search results will now show links to full-text resources held in the institutional library
# [https://scholar.google.com/intl/en/scholar/help.html#library '''Storing citations'''] - save favourite publications to a folder. They can be found via My Library.
# '''APA style citations''' - double-quote button. Provides a good start, but may need correcting, italics, and doesn't provide doi
# [https://scholar.google.com/scholar_alerts '''Setting up alerts'''] - follow new publications about topics or authors of interest. &quot;Create alert&quot; at bottom of search.
&lt;!-- ## [https://canberra.libanswers.com/faq/192648 More info] --&gt;
&lt;!-- # Filtering by year
# '''Related articles'''
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==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
&lt;!--
Clary, E. G., &amp; Snyder, M. (1991). A functional analysis of altruism and prosocial behavior: The case of volunteerism. In M. Clark (Ed.), ''Review of personality and social psychology: Vol 12. Pro-social behavior'' (pp. 119-148). Sage.
--&gt;
Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., Miene, P. (1998). [http://www.comm.umn.edu/~akoerner/courses/5431-S13/Clary%20et%20al.%20(1998).pdf Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach]. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''74''(6), 516–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1516

Clary, E. G., &amp; Snyder, M. (1999). [http://cdp.sagepub.com/content/8/5/156.full.pdf The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations]. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''8''(5), 156–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00037

}}

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/91f8e38a29b04878befbe7693c62125a Tutorial 5] (2026)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b638e341c0404b7495a06ec2f4ee4889 Tutorial 5] (2025)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/09ecf4ffc3634700bbeebc40375ed75a Tutorial 5] (2024)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/80241f122b874ad48c34707e1362faa4 Tutorial 5] (2023)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/9c4925f4e1254be7bac2c1d37915e289 Tutorial 5] (2022)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/dd3e4ff54b6b427ba84d6f94285129ac Tutorial 5] (2021)
--&gt;

==See also==
&lt;!--
;Additional tutorial material
--&gt;
&lt;!--
;Book chapters
--&gt;
;Wikipedia
* [[w:Biofeedback|Biofeedback]]
* [[w:Quantified Self|Quantified Self]]
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==External links==
* [https://x.com/BobTroia Bob Troia] (X) 
* [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=bullet+journal+habit+tracker Bullet journals] (Google image search)
* [https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/sporty/fitness-trackers-and-cold-water-swimming/13512108 Do fitness trackers make you more active?] (ABC Radio National - Sporty podcast, 2021)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V08dWCtDyd8 The rise of the quantified self] (Mashable Brand X, 2014, YouTube, 1:48 mins)
&lt;!-- # An applied example: Workplace pedometer programs - http://www.10000steps.org.au, http://www.gettheworldmoving.com/ --&gt;
&lt;!-- Find another video about pedometer based social media competitions --&gt;
&lt;!--
;Articles/Links
# [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FESv2CgyJag The quantified self: How wearable sensors expand human potential] (Lauren Constantini, TEDxMileHigh, 2014) (10:55)
# [http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/37784/?mod=MagOur The measured life]
# [http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2011/04/07/adventures-in-self-surveillance-aka-the-quantified-self-aka-extreme-navel-gazing/ Adventures in Self-Surveillance, aka The Quantified Self, aka Extreme Navel-Gazing]
# [http://quantifiedself.com The quantified self]
# [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/personal-science/201102/growth-quantified-self Growth of quantified self]
# [http://opensource.com/health/11/8/open-health-quantified-self Open health with quantified self]
# [http://www.launch.is/blog/bringing-quantified-self-to-the-masses-habit-labs-creates-ga.html Bringing quantified self to the masses: Habit labs creates games to make live healthier]
# [http://www.fastcodesign.com/1665351/can-jawbone-really-made-people-healtheir-with-their-up-wristband Jawbone UP tracker]
# [http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1641899/App-to-track-your-every-move App to track your every move] (PlaceMe) - [https://plus.google.com/111091089527727420853/posts/3iqjCACkBuz]
# [http://news.cnet.com/8301-33620_3-57602925-278/how-my-body-rejected-activity-trackers-and-the-quantified-self/?google_editors_picks=true How my body rejected activity trackers and the 'quantified self'] (Danny Sullivan, 2013, CNET) --&gt;
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
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  <page>
    <title>Universal Bibliography/Countries</title>
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      <text bytes="40307" sha1="2lid7sbbwmh6zx67sl1w1lq5bb3vxhi" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]].

See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]].

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries).

==Countries==
*Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997.
*Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ]
*Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC]
*The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ]
*Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ]
*Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ]
*Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ]
*Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ]
*Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ]
*[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ]

General series:
*National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC]
*Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761]
*Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP8#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C]
*The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin.
*The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York.
*World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&amp;pg=PA141#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==England==
===Counties===
See [[s:Portal:Counties]]

* Harrison, &quot;County Bibliography&quot; (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA49#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 49]

General series
*Victoria County History
*Oxford County Histories
*Pinnock's County Histories
*Shire County Guides. Shire Publications.
*Cambridge County Geographies
*Pike's New Century Series
*[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen.

Avon
*Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102

Bedfordshire
*Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ]
*Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ]
*Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Buckinghamshire
*Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ]

Cambridgeshire
*Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Devon
*Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ]
*Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ]

Derbyshire
*Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ]
*O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961

Essex
*Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC]
*&quot;The Bibliography of Essex&quot; (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine &amp; Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA72#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PA283#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 283].
*&quot;The Bibliography of Essex&quot; (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ]
*Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ]
*Fenn and Lowery, &quot;An Essex Bibliography&quot;, Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 &amp; 3
*Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ]
*O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962.
*A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology &amp; History
*Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961
*Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ]
*Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club
*Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ]
*Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Kent
*Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP11#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Leicestershire
*Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &amp;c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA84#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA728#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester.
*Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester.
*Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester.
*A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200]
*Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ]
*Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, &quot;Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003&quot; (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society.
*Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978.
*Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ]

Sussex
*Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ]
*Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979

==France==
Bibliography:
*Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&amp;pg=PA145#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA10#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&amp;pg=PA23#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 23]. 
*Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Landscape:
*Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ]

Agenais:
*Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969.

Alsace:
*Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936
*Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ]

Angoumois:
*Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Anjou:
*Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ]

Auvergne:
*Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Béarn
*&quot;Bibliographie Béarnaise&quot;, Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&amp;pg=PA158#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ]

Brittany
*Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach]

Burgundy:
*Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ]
*Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ]
*Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC]
*Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC]
*Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ]

Champagne:
*Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ]

Dauphiné:
*Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Lorraine:
*Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ]

Maine:
*Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Normandy:
*Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&amp;pg=PP13#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1]

==Japan==
Bibliography and literature
*Hideo Kaneko. &quot;Japanese Literature and Bibliography&quot;. Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1977. vol 21. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&amp;pg=PA131#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 131] to 176.

Bibliography
*Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986.
*Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ]
*Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ]
*Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ]
*A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ]
*Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957.
**Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ]
**Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ]
*Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ]
*Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC].
**A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ]
*Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2].
*Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up]
*Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ]

Japanese studies
*An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ]
*Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. &quot;Bibliographies&quot; at pp 1 to 3.
*K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ]
*[[w:en:Monumenta Nipponica|Monumenta Nipponica]]
*[[w:en:Japan Forum|Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20]
*Japanese Studies. Japanese Studies Association of Australia. ISSN 1037-1397. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/cjst20]
*[[w:en:The Journal of Japanese Studies|The Journal of Japanese Studies]]. University of California Press.
*Nichibunken Newsletter. [[w:en:International Research Center for Japanese Studies|International Research Center for Japanese Studies]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5TnjAAAAMAAJ] [https://www.nichibun.ac.jp/en/publications/data/news/] [https://newsletter.nichibun.ac.jp/en/]

History and culture
*John W Dower. Japanese History &amp; Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. &quot;Bibliographies &amp; Research Guides&quot; at chapter 6.

Research guides
*Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82

Encyclopedias

See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]]
*Louis-Frédéric. Japan Encyclopedia. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993.
**Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999.
*[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ]
*Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ]
*Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ]
*Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ]
**Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC]

Reference books
*Nihon No Sanko Tosho. Volume 1: 1965. Volume 2: 1972.
**Guide to Japanese Reference Books. American Library Association. Chicago. 1966: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0rflAAAAMAAJ]. Supplement. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j05_F9OHzkQC]. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 21, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&amp;pg=PA149#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 149].

Media
*[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023.
*Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Publishers
*[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026.

Press and journalism
*[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025.
*Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ]
*The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949].
*Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ]
*Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ]
*William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ]
*Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C]
*César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PR4#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*&quot;Japan&quot;. Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&amp;pg=PA809#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 809] to 815.

Press annuals
*The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998]

Summaries of the press
*Daily Summary of Japanese Press

Foreign correspondents
*Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Periodicals
*G Raymond Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ]
*Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ]
*Japanese Periodicals Index
**Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC]
**Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ]
*Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ]
*Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ]
*Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ]
*List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental &amp; African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ]
*Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011.
*Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC
**Japan Information
*Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues.
*Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C]
*[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture &amp; History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ]
*Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC]
*The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ]
*Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC]
*The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up]
*Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC]
**The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ]
*About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ]
**News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up]
*[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com)
*[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/]
*The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ]
*[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC]
*PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ]
**Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ]
*Japan Digest [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8AcOAQAAMAAJ]
*Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.]
*The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&amp;pg=PP6#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Today's Japan. Orient/West Incorporated. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2ASAAAAMAAJ]
*Japan Review: Bulletin of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GggOAQAAMAAJ]
*[https://www.bloomberg.com/account/newsletters/next-japan Next Japan]. Bloomberg.

Newspapers

See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]]
*Haruhara Akihiko, &quot;English-language newspapers in Japan&quot; (1994) 41 Japan Quarterly [https://www.proquest.com/openview/8e2b760f2a2fa37ba164ea675c095353/1 474] (Issue 4: October 1994)
*James Charles Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bn2zgzZy_3oC]
*[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009.

*[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]]
**The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Japan Daily Mail
*Japan Weekly Mail
*The Japan Chronicle
**Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun)
**Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955)
**The Yomiuri (from 1958)
**The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970)
*The Asahi Shimbun: Asia &amp; Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/]
**Asahi Evening News (from 1954)
***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073]
*The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/]
**Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910]

Sports newspapers; sports dailies
*Louise do Rosario, &quot;News-stand stars&quot; in &quot;Japan&quot; (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21
*[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], &quot;Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?&quot; in &quot;Sport&quot;, [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39

News
*[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings.

Annuals and year books 
*This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA244#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915].
*The &quot;Japan Gazette&quot; Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14]
*The Japan Times Year Book
*New Japan. Mainichi Newspapers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gRFCAQAAIAAJ]

Almanacs
*Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995].
*Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ]
*[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ]

General
*Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC]
*Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] (DA Pam 550-30).
*Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan.
**Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ]
**This is Japan. Angus &amp; Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ]
*Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 &quot;Japan Korea&quot;, including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands.
*Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412.
*Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ]
*Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ]
*&quot;Japan&quot;. Louis Barron (ed). &quot;Asia &amp; Australasia&quot;. Moshe Y Sachs (ed and pub). Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Worldmark Press, Inc. Harper &amp; Row New York. 1963. pp 145 to 160. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ]
**&quot;Japan&quot;. Asia &amp; Oceania. 7th Ed: 1988. ISBN 0-471 62406-3. vol 4. pp 153 to 168.
**&quot;Japan&quot;. Asia &amp; Oceania. 8th Ed: 1995. Gale Research Inc. ISBN 0-8103-9882-6. vol 4. pp 203 to 220.
*James E Hoare. &quot;Japan&quot;. East and Southeast Asia. The World Today Series 2023–2024. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3GfQEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA107#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 107] to 133.

Handbooks
*Patrick Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Introduction
*Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ].
*Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Herschel Webb. An Introduction to Japan. Columbia University Press. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ].
*Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan.

Today and yesterday
*Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ]

Today
*Roger Buckley. Japan Today. Cambridge University Press. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Contemporary
*Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA2011#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Duncan McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Jeff Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

[Series]
*Routledge Contemporary Japan Series

Modern
*Hugh Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. Palgrave Macmillan. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

The Japanese
*Peter Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC]
**The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ]
**Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ]
*Edwin O Reischauer. The Japanese. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zrEqAAAAYAAJ]
*Edwin O Reischauer and Marius B Jansen. The Japanese Today: Change and Continuity. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BTPNlLIy2soC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Japaneseness
*Ray T. Donahue (ed). Exploring Japaneseness: On Japanese Enactments of Culture and Consciousness. Ablex Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V_NwAAAAMAAJ]
*Yoji Yamakuse. Japaneseness: A Guide to Values and Virtues. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tB0iDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Travel books
*DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
*Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C].
*Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988.
**Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93.
**Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ]
*The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ]
*Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC]
*Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ]
*Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. (&quot;All the Best&quot; series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C]
**All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967.

Languages

See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages/Japanese|Japanese]]

Literature

See [[Universal Bibliography/Literature#Japanese|Japanese literature]]

Music

See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]]

Cinema

See [[Universal Bibliography/Cinema#Japanese|Cinema of Japan]]

Television

See [[Universal Bibliography/Television#Japanese|Japanese television]]

Culture

See [[Universal Bibliography/Culture#Japanese|Culture of Japan]]

==Korea==
*Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC]

Bibliography and literature
*Thomas H Kang. &quot;Korean Literature and Bibliography&quot;. Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1977. vol 21. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&amp;pg=PA176#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 176] to 240.

[[Category:Countries]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mikael Häggström</username>
        <id>12130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* applying other join the board */ Accepted</comment>
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'''This is a page for applications to become an administrative board member for the [[WikiJournal User Group]] ([[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative board|description]]). New applications should be made below.&lt;br&gt;To see open editorial applications across all WikiJournals, see [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group/Editors|this page]]'''.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Archive box|[[/Archive 2021]]}}
If you are interested in joining the Administrative Board, please add a short application on this talk page. Briefly describe your relevant experience in administration, organizational work, Wikimedia or other wiki projects, and any particular areas in which you would like to contribute to WikiJournal.
{{Clickable button 2
|Apply to the administrative board
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:{{PAGENAMEE}}&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload={{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}%2FAdministrative_board%2FApplication&amp;summary=Administrative+board+application
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== applying other join the board ==

I have been an associate editor for several years now, and attended board meetings regularly, contributing to many discussions and bringing several submissions to publication. I have over 20 years of experience with open science and open access publishing for scientific journals and serve on the editorial board of two other journals currently. I do make contributions to Wikipedia as well, albeit rarely. Michael Heggstrom and Andrew Leung have suggested I apply to join this board. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-46406-96|
Alex Holcombe]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-46406-96|talk]]) 23:19, 25 August 2026 (UTC)

:'''Strong support'''. I was one of those who recommended that Alex Holcombe apply, and I strongly support him joining the Administrative Board. Alex has already demonstrated sustained commitment to WikiJournal through several years as an associate editor, regular participation in meetings and discussions, and helping bring submissions through to publication. Alex’s extensive experience with open science, open-access publishing, and service on other journal editorial boards would also bring valuable perspective to the Administrative Board. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 18:01, 26 August 2026 (UTC)
: '''Strong support'''. Having worked with Alex in numerous submissions, I have strong confidence in his ability. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 04:13, 2 September 2026 (UTC)
::'''Accepted'''. I will go ahead and add you to the official list and email list. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 02:30, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
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__NOTOC__
:''See also [[meta:WikiJournal_User_Group#Administrative_board]]''

The administrative board of WikiJournal consists of users who participate in common interests of the journals. Members of the administrative board also direct the creation and/or acceptance of additional journals in this group. It has a more administrative role such as financials, while the editorial boards of individual journals are more of subject-specific nature such as acceptance of articles. Discussions should take place on this [[Talk:WikiJournal/WikiJournal User Group|Discuss page]] or at the [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en public mailing list]. Important discussions or decisions should be shared with individual journal boards as well.

Membership in the administrative is ''not'' a requirement to contribute to WikiJournal or any of the included journals, even as a journal official such as a board member. For more information, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Bylaws|Bylaws of WikiJournal]].

{{wjh_h2|Administrative board members}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;{{div col|colwidth=35em}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q38382414
|'''Chair''' of the administrative board since June 2018. Biochemistry researcher in Australia. Editor-in-chief of ''[[Wikiversity:WikiJournal of Science|Wiki.J.Science]]''. Also editor for ''[[v:WikiJournal of Medicine|Wiki.J.Med]]'' and [http://topicpageswiki.plos.org ''PLOS'' Topics Pages].
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q38381954
| ''[[Wikipedia:Doctor_of_Medicine#United_States_and_Canada|MD]]''. Resident physician in pathology in Sweden. WikiJournal tasks: Editor-in-chief of ''[[v:WikiJournal of Medicine|Wiki.J.Med]]'', technical administrator of domain names and email lists, Facebook administrator of WikiJMed, and keeping financials.
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q41531086
|Senior Lecturer in Writing Studies in Australia. Also editor-in-chief of ''[[v:WikiJournal of Humanities|Wiki.J.Hum]]''.
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q55120687
|Associate professor of Physics at ''[[v:Wright State University Lake Campus|Wright State University Lake Campus]]''.  Taught college physics for 32 years and have written 23 papers in plasma physics, musical acoustics and other topics related to university-level teaching. Founded the ''[[v:Second Journal of Science|Second Journal of Science]]'' (which now redirects to ''[[Wikiversity:WikiJournal of Science|Wiki.J.Science]]''.)
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q20895785
| Data scientist at the [[w:University of Virginia|University of Virginia]]. Also editor for [http://topicpageswiki.plos.org ''PLOS'' Topics Pages].
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q42421780
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q75778741
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q99632752
| accomplishments and publications can be found using Google Scholar or other searches with &quot;HA Hoff&quot; or &quot;Henry A. Hoff&quot;, the biology and psychology are not mine as yet.
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q106098814
| with a particular focus on HR
}}

{{div col end}}&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{wjs_h2|Role details}}

===Main tasks===
Administrative, HR, and organisational tasks as descibed in the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Bylaws|WikiJournal User Group bylaws]].

If you are interested in joining the Administrative Board, please add a short application on the [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group/Administrative board|Administrative Board talk page]]. Briefly describe your relevant experience in administration, organizational work, Wikimedia or other wiki projects, and any particular areas in which you would like to contribute to WikiJournal.
{{Clickable button 2
|Apply to the administrative board
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:{{PAGENAMEE}}&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload={{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}%2FAdministrative_board%2FApplication&amp;summary=Administrative+board+application
|class=mw-ui-progressive
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__NOTOC__
:''See also [[meta:WikiJournal_User_Group#Administrative_board]]''

The administrative board of WikiJournal consists of users who participate in common interests of the journals. Members of the administrative board also direct the creation and/or acceptance of additional journals in this group. It has a more administrative role such as financials, while the editorial boards of individual journals are more of subject-specific nature such as acceptance of articles. Discussions should take place on this [[Talk:WikiJournal/WikiJournal User Group|Discuss page]] or at the [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en public mailing list]. Important discussions or decisions should be shared with individual journal boards as well.

Membership in the administrative is ''not'' a requirement to contribute to WikiJournal or any of the included journals, even as a journal official such as a board member. For more information, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Bylaws|Bylaws of WikiJournal]].

{{wjh_h2|Administrative board members}}
&lt;/noinclude&gt;{{div col|colwidth=35em}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q38382414
|'''Chair''' of the administrative board since June 2018. Biochemistry researcher in Australia. Editor-in-chief of ''[[Wikiversity:WikiJournal of Science|Wiki.J.Science]]''. Also editor for ''[[v:WikiJournal of Medicine|Wiki.J.Med]]'' and [http://topicpageswiki.plos.org ''PLOS'' Topics Pages].
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q38381954
| ''[[Wikipedia:Doctor_of_Medicine#United_States_and_Canada|MD]]''. Resident physician in pathology in Sweden. WikiJournal tasks: Editor-in-chief of ''[[v:WikiJournal of Medicine|Wiki.J.Med]]'', technical administrator of domain names and email lists, Facebook administrator of WikiJMed, and keeping financials.
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q41531086
|Senior Lecturer in Writing Studies in Australia. Also editor-in-chief of ''[[v:WikiJournal of Humanities|Wiki.J.Hum]]''.
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q55120687
|Associate professor of Physics at ''[[v:Wright State University Lake Campus|Wright State University Lake Campus]]''.  Taught college physics for 32 years and have written 23 papers in plasma physics, musical acoustics and other topics related to university-level teaching. Founded the ''[[v:Second Journal of Science|Second Journal of Science]]'' (which now redirects to ''[[Wikiversity:WikiJournal of Science|Wiki.J.Science]]''.)
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q20895785
| Data scientist at the [[w:University of Virginia|University of Virginia]]. Also editor for [http://topicpageswiki.plos.org ''PLOS'' Topics Pages].
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q42421780
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q75778741
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q99632752
| accomplishments and publications can be found using Google Scholar or other searches with &quot;HA Hoff&quot; or &quot;Henry A. Hoff&quot;, the biology and psychology are not mine as yet.
}}

{{editor info
| Q = Q47679542
| 
}}

{{div col end}}&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{wjs_h2|Role details}}

===Main tasks===
Administrative, HR, and organisational tasks as descibed in the [[WikiJournal_User_Group/Bylaws|WikiJournal User Group bylaws]].

If you are interested in joining the Administrative Board, please add a short application on the [[Talk:WikiJournal User Group/Administrative board|Administrative Board talk page]]. Briefly describe your relevant experience in administration, organizational work, Wikimedia or other wiki projects, and any particular areas in which you would like to contribute to WikiJournal.
{{Clickable button 2
|Apply to the administrative board
|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:{{PAGENAMEE}}&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new&amp;preload={{ROOTPAGENAMEE}}%2FAdministrative_board%2FApplication&amp;summary=Administrative+board+application
|class=mw-ui-progressive
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{{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyzzWOLfNuo}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Sixteen faces expressing the human passions. Wellcome L0068375 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Range of Emotions]]The wave metaphor for [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]]s is a way to conceptualise emotions in a physical way. By viewing these neurological and physiological processes as a physical wave that they can see it can help to gain control and perspective and take hold of the emotion before the emotion takes hold of you{{gr}}. This physical manifestation is a vital tool to aid in emotion regulation in everyday life.

The wave metaphor for emotion discusses the representation of the inner movement that emotions create. The changes and affects emotions can cause within a person's mind can range from light, positive, happy and calm on one end of the spectrum to negative, anger, heavy and depressing.

Emotions have the potential to arise suddenly from both external and internal stimuli. Emotions can be uncontrollable and unpreventable without proper guidance on how to experience emotions in a beneficial way. {{rewrite}} 

The wave metaphor for emotion is also referred to as &quot;riding the wave&quot;, highlighting the many different interpretations of this metaphor and how it can be modified and adapted to fit different peoples{{gr}} needs (Greenwald, 2021).

'''Case Study'''

Sophie has problems regulating her emotions, which was causing her distress. She started seeing a Dialectical Behavioural Therapist {{inline comment|no need for capitalisation}} to help her gain better control of her emotions. Instead of pushing the emotion away or reacting in the heat of the moment, Sophie was taught to visualise riding her emotions as if she was a surfer, remembering that the emotions she feels will only be temporary and will pass.

[[File:Surfer in Santa cruz 11-8-9 -1.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. A surfer riding an intense wave]]
[[File:Surfer enjoying the waves.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A surfer peacefully riding a calm wave]]

When a surfer is challenged by harsh and troubling waves, they do not try to surf against the waves and go against the ocean. Instead, they choose to move with the wave, catching the natural flow the waves come in from the tide. Emotions are very similar to waves in this sense. People often attempt to fight against feeling strong negative emotions, which can lead to long-term disadvantages and complications.

In Sophies{{gr}} case, when she became overwhelmed and frustrated with her situation, she delayed and denied her emotions by impulsively shopping online, which then lead to financial strain and continued the cycle. Now when Sophie feels these emotions, she accepts the emotion and lets the experience wash over her, recognising what she is feeling, yet understanding the emotion is temporary and not all of who she is. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the wave metaphor?
* What are emotions? 
* How can the wave metaphor be used with psychological theories?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Emotion==
This section describes all of the different categories of emotion and how emotion interacts with the wave metaphor for emotion.

=== What are emotions? ===
Emotions are &quot;a complex reaction pattern, involving experimental, behavioural and physiological elements&quot;. Emotions are individual processss{{sp}} of dealing with stimuli and situations which hold personal significance. Emotions are split into three categories: a subjective experience, physiological response and a behavioural or expressive response (Imotions, 2015).

=== What are the differences between emotions, feelings, and moods? ===
Feelings occur from emotional experiences. This happens as a conscious experience, developing from an emotion. Feelings can be influenced by memories, beliefs, and other factors. Feelings are categorised in the same classification as hunger or pain. 

[[w: Mood (psychology)|Mood]] is described as &quot;any short-lived emotional state, usually of low intensity&quot; . Moods lack stimuli and show no clear starting point which makes them different from emotions. 

=== What are the purpose of emotions? ===
Emotions are an integrated part of life and human beings. They also serve three different types of functions. Experiencing all own {{huh}} the range of emotions is important both the positive and negative emotions Within the purpose of emotions there is seen to be three kinds of functions in which emotions serve (Walinga et al., 2019):

==== Interpersonal functions of emotion ====
The interpersonal function of emotion occurs externally and is used to communicate with people around us; sharing our needs, desires, and dislikes through the use of facial expressions, words, body posture, and more (Walinga et al., 2019).

==== Intrapersonal functions of emotion ====
The intrapersonal function of emotion describes what happens within a person, both physiologically and psychologically in their body and minds (Hwang &amp; Matsumoto, 2022). 

==== Social and cultural functions of emotion ====
The social and cultural functions of emotions are to help maintain the productiveness and cohesiveness of society and Culture (Hwang &amp; Matsumoto, 2022). 

=== How are emotions and waves alike? ===
Both emotions and waves have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Waves emerge small from far away and travel long distances over the ocean, getting bigger as time moves on. This is similar to emotions in the sense that emotions can be triggered from all sorts of different trigger locations and events, and the longer the emotion dwells, the bigger they can become. 

Emotions have rhythm and flow similar to waves. Tidal waves and emotions can be overwhelming at first from the size and intensity however, both will recede and ease. It has been found that people process and accept emotions within 90 seconds (Delgado, 2022). Both positive and negative emotions are held onto by choice (Delgado, 2022).

Another comparison for waves and emotions is they cannot be stopped. People are unable to control how they feel in situations, they aren't controllable {{repeated}} (Delgado, 2022). When feelings arise, people are not able to stop them but can control what happens next. People can learn to manage, process, and accept feelings to cope in healthier ways. This allows people to take control over their reactions to negative emotions instead of resisting and suppressing them. Emotions and waves both need to be ridden. By riding the wave, people can take control of their emotions opposed to them overwhelming the people feeling them {{rewrite}}.

=== Does the metaphor apply to both negative and positive emotions? ===
The wave metaphor is applicable to both positive and negative emotions. The analogy is often used to describe negative emotions, as they are usually the overwhelming emotions people struggle to deal with. Positive emotions can be strongly felt if people allow them to be {{rewrite}}. Many emotions fall under the category of positive emotions, including: fascination, motivation, appreciation, and safety. People often dwell on negative emotions and remember those feelings, but let the positive emotions fade away (Delgado, 2022). Viewing positive emotions through the wave metaphor allows people to enjoy the emotion, flowing over them similar to a wave flowing over us.

=== Steps to &quot;riding the wave&quot; of emotion ===
# Awareness and acknowledgment of the emotion
# Experience the emotion 
# Understand this emotion is only one part of you
# Accept the emotion as it is without categorising it

=== Emotional intelligence ===
[[Emotional intelligence]], also known as emotional quotient refers to the ability to regulate and identify a person's own emotions and those of others. People with high emotional intelligence build greater relationships, have higher job satisfaction, and regulate their emotions with better speed and understanding (2019){{source}}. 


Being able to identify and regulate a person's own emotions is one of the foundations of being emotionally intellegent {{spelling}} and possessing useful tools in order to do this {{rewrite}}. The wave metaphor for emotion can be used to boost levels of emotional intelligence, by being able to process a person's emotions and accurately respond to the emotional needs of other people. 

==History==
This section describes the origins of the wave metaphor for emotion and the differences culture plays {{awkward}}  in understanding the metaphor.

===Origins ===
[[File:Tsunami by hokusai 19th century.jpg|thumb|Figure 4.The Great Wave by Katsushika Hokusai]]

The wave metaphor for emotions dates back to 'The Great Wave' published in 1831 by Katsushika Hokusai. The Great Wave was part of a 36 views of Mt. Fuji series; the art was used to describe a natural disaster of Mt. Fuji's slopes causes by heavy rainfall. This is one of the many interpretations the painting inspired being used to represent deep emotional experiences such as fear, helplessness and nationalism. The grave wave also referred to as the wave metaphor is now used to describe the everyday emotional experience of reacting to stimulus, feeling the emotion and the actions taken after the feeling.

=== Cultural implications and differences ===
[[Culture]] is defined as the encompassing atmosphere in which people live life. Arts, music, fashion, traditions, beliefs, and institutions all contribute to creating culture. Each culture has their own set of rules, customs, and values which shapes how people feel, act, and think. 

Throughout culture, there are concepts which are cross cultural and universal but then become culturally specific based on their own values and beliefs. Emotion is a universal concept with general meaning across cultures. There are seven basic emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, contempt, and disgust {{source}}. There are also general themes which trigger each emotion and correlating facial expressions of the universal emotions. From these universal principles, the semantics then become culturally specific. Social guidelines and etiquette of when, where, and how to express and display emotions. The attitudes viewed and the language used and what events evoke emotional responses. Culture influences peoples emotional experiences by determining if the person can relate feelings to the event, shaping the emotional experience.

The wave metaphor for emotions in principal is a universal concept, that it can be understood beyond cultural bounds but the relation and specific meaning can be interpreted differently. There are some distinct differences in culture between western and eastern cultures and the way they view emotion. Western cultures are very individualistic and high emotion arousal centred, whereas eastern cultures are collectivist and place importance on low arousal emotions. These differences often{{sp}} insight to the potential different understanding of the wave metaphor. Western culture uses the wave metaphor to describe high intensity emotions with big waves. Eastern culture utilises the wave metaphor for low intensity emotions with many little waves with small peaks. (Lim, N. 2016) {{inline comment|in-text reference not in APA  format}} .

== Theories ==
This section describes the different psychological theories of emotion and how they interact and utilise the benefits of the wave metaphor for emotion. 

===Evolutionary theory of emotion===
The [[w: Evolution of emotion|evolutionary theory of emotion]] focuses on emotions as an adaptive problem solving phenomena. The theory is traditionally based on a selection of emotions which carry particular universal signals, universally identified and observable in other primates. This theory originated in the 1870s, by Charles Darwin, with an interest in facial expressions, believing they were innate in nature and hard-wired {{source}}. Darwin saw facial expressions as an act which allows people to quickly judge a person's emotions and understand and communicate intentions. Darwin concluded that emotions evolved to secure human and animal survival. The desire to be loved and receive affection encourages people to seek partners and reproduce, continuing the human survival. Whereas fear forces people to react to the source of danger approaching them, leading to either fight or flight. These responses to environmental stimuli are driven by emotion to react appropriately and raise their odds of surviving and succeeding. People who are able to correctly interpret and respond to emotions have a greater likelihood of success, survival, and safety, both physically and emotionally. People and animals will exhibit body language to express their emotions and possessing the ability to recognise them is an evolutionary example of adaptive emotions (Cherry, 2022).

=== The James-Lange Theory of Emotion ===
The [[wikipedia:James–Lange_theory|James-Lange Theory of Emotion]], theorised in the 1880s, considered the notion that bodily changes which is followed by the formation of an emotional experience based on the bodily reaction {{huh}} {{source}} . James-Lange believed that emotions were caused by bodily sensations. For instance when a person smiles, they become happy or when a person experiences their heart rate increase they become afraid. This process works through stimulating events which trigger physical reactions. The physical reaction is allocated to a corresponding emotion. 

This theory of emotion can be linked to the wave metaphor as the stimulating event as the start of the wave. The physical reaction represents the peak of the wave and the emotional reaction is how the person chooses to process their emotion, either fighting or riding the wave.

=== Cognitive appraisal theory ===
Cognitive appraisal theory describes the act of a person processing and analysing an evoking event which prompts a bodily reaction to the event. According to James-Lange, cognitive appraisals can happen consciously or subconsciously discussed by Schachter-Singer {{who}}. It was commonly found amongst cognitive appraisal theorists that people experiencing the same evoking event would experience differing emotions {{citation needed}}. These findings imply that people can comprehend evoking events in differing reactions which causes ranging emotional experiences.

There are currently two perspectives of cognitive appraisal theory used to account for the interaction between emotions and cognitive appraisals. The first perspective suggests that cognitive appraisals cause emotions. This perspective implies that the manner a person interprets the evoking event shapes which emotion is produced. The different cognitive appraisals people make allow people to intepret evoking events differently and feel different emotions as a result. The emotions people feel from the evoking event describes peoples differing viewpoints on the same situations.

The second perspective of cognitive appraisal theories follows the opposite sequence, believing that the emotion comes first and causes the appraisal. The person feels the emotion after experiencing physiological and behavioural changes.

Through analysis of this theory in conjunction with the wave metaphor it can be seen that a person will be in an evoking situation, the start of the wave, the appraisal of the event is the peak of the wave and the emotion being felt is the flow and crash of the wave {{rewrite}}. 

=== [[wikipedia:Cannon-Bard_theory|Cannon-Bard Theory]] ===
This psychological theory also referred to as the thalamic theory of emotion, takes a biological perspective, believing that physiological and emotional experiences occur together and separately. As a person feels an emotion, they will also experience a physiological reaction such as increased heart rate, shaking voice, and sweating. The Cannon-Bard theory states that emotions are the result of the thalamus sending messages to the brain as a response to the presenting stimulus, prompting a physiological reaction {{source}} . 

The amygdala receives a signal from the thalamus when an event occurs. The automatic nervous system also receives a signal from the thalamus, which causes the physical reaction to occur. This theory applies to both positive and negative emotions in any situation where a person experiences an emotional reaction. 

The Cannon-Bard theory and the wave metaphor for emotion are similar in process as they both happen simultaneously and continuously. People feel emotions instantly when presented with an evoking situation, rising and falling with intensity in the same nature a wave flows. 

=== Dialectical Behavioural Therapy ===
Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) is a subtype of talk therapy derived from cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) which had been modified to help people who feel emotions at intense and high rates or have been diagnosed with borderline personality disorder.

The aim of DBT is to help people understand and accept concerning feelings. In order to do this, DBT teaches peoples{{gr}} skills which are implemented to manage their emotions and utilise the skills to change their lives with positivity {{awkward}}. DBT teaches patients distress tolerance, emotional regulation, mindfulness, and interpersonal effectiveness. 

Within DBT, patients are taught to optimise the use of the wave metaphor as a visual aid for coping with intense emotions they perceive as being uncontrollable{{fact}}. Instead of letting their emotions consume them or making rash decisions, they experience the emotion as if a wave was washing over them, understanding that fighting the emotion will only worsen the damage and delay the healing process{{gr}}{{fact}}.

== Practical capabilities ==
This section discusses the practical capabilities {{inline comment|Maybe rephrase to &quot;practical utility&quot; or &quot;practical application&quot;}}  of using the wave metaphor for emotion to benefit people in everyday life and its links to other psychological processes.

=== Fight or flight ===
[[File:The Fight or Flight Response.png|thumb|Figure 5.Fight or Flight response diagram describing the kinds of physical effects it can cause]]

[[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight or flight]] is a physiological response which happens automatically as a response to any event that a person finds threatening or alarming. The sympathetic nervous system is alerted by the idea of danger and the body prepares to react in either fight or flight as an acute stress response. This bodily reaction to perceived threats are evolutionary survival preservation mechanisms to increase the likelihood of surviving the situation.

Fight or flight is a useful survival technique but when used in unnecessary and excessive states, this coping mechanism has been correlated with a variety of anxiety disorders and other clinical conditions{{fact}}. An important aspect of treatment for anxiety is an elevated knowledge of the physiological need for fight and flight and the consequences of excessive use of the response.

People who understand how to control this response have better understanding and control over their emotions and possess the ability to ride the wave of their emotions instead of letting the emotion take over and cause unneeded fight or flight responses (Psychology Tools, 2022). By viewing the emotion they are feeling as an ocean wave they are able to stop the fight or flight response from occurring and gain better control on experiencing the emotion and processing forward. 

=== Trauma response symptoms ===
A [[trauma]] response is an emotional reaction to a traumatic event. Traumatic events include natural disasters, rape, accidents, war, death, and many more. Trauma symptoms have a range of effects including short term and long term effects. Denial and shock are associated to happen soon after the event{{awkward}}. Long term effects including flashbacks, physical illness or pain, mood swings and strained relationships {{gr}} (Cherry, 2022).

Trauma symptom responses are strongly associated with the fight or flight responses due to the emotions being uncomfortable, harsh and difficult to cope with. Humans instinctively try to avoid painful emotions; however, this strategy can be harmful and cause emotions to increase in intensity and become more detrimental (Cherry, 2022).

Therapists of trauma patients have used the wave metaphor as a visual technique to help take back control of their emotions (Cherry, 2022). People get scared when they are being approached by massive waves in the ocean and will try to fight the wave and end up tiring themselves out and making the situation worse. This process is similar to peoples{{gr}} trauma responses, emerged in strong and negative emotions people try to fight them and prolong their suffering. Instead they need to surrender to the wave and ride or float through the negative emotions.

=== Emotion regulation ===
Emotional regulation is a developing field in psychology regarding the processes associated with emotional reactions, including: recognising, modifying, evaluating, and monitoring situations. People vary in emotional regulation techniques and capabilities, using both interpersonal and intrapersonal resources to regulate their emotions. Studies have found that people who often regulate their emotions are significantly more likely to report higher quality of life (Phillips &amp; Power, 2007). Emotion regulation is a dynamic system process, incorporating psychological, biological and sociological factors which affect how people can self regulate. One perspective of emotion regulation is that emotions are a component of general self regulatory systems maintaining and modifying our behaviour to achieve goals. From this stance, the emotion being regulated is a combination of all the interacting subsystems (Butler, 2011). 

Emotional regulation is vital for both good psychological and physiological health. Studies have found that the relationship between the mind and body can have both positive and negative correlations, including functioning of immune and cardiovascular systems, morbidity, mortality and disease severity. People with poor ability to regulate their emotions experience worse states of physical health and are prone to diseases and shorter life expectancies. By being able to regulate a person's own emotions can be linked to proactive adapting to handle the enviormental{{sp}} demands associated with being emotional intelligent(Song et al., 2015) {{rewrite}}. 

From these understandings of emotional regulation and its importance in living a healthy life, it can be seen that optimising skills to achieve high emotion regulation is beneficial. The wave metaphor for emotion is an emotional regulation technique which requires the person to identify the emotion they are feeling, experience the feeling as it comes and then move forward accordingly with positive motions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Reflection questions:'''
* How does fight or flight interact with the wave metaphor?
* How can visualising the wave metaphor help people deal with trauma symptoms? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
The wave metaphor for emotion is a useful and relevant tool for people to better understand and control their emotions. The analogy originated from the depiction of the art work 'The Great Wave', which inspired thoughtful discourse and understanding of peoples {{grammar}} emotions. Understanding a person's own emotions is a vital and crucial part of life which promotes happiness and health in life. Waves crash and flow with the potential to overwhelm and drown the person. Emotions can hold the same power over people who do not know how to properly deal with them.

The useful visualisation of feeling emotions can be linked to many theories, including the evolutionary theory of emotions, cognitive appraisal theory, James-Lange theory of emotion, Dialectical Behavioral Therapy, and the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. There are also many practical applications of the wave metaphor, being used to raise mental health, reduce trauma symptoms, boost emotional intelligence, emotionally regulate, and correctly use fight or flight responses in necessary situations.

Although the wave metaphor for emotion is a useful tool which allows people to help guide and control their emotions, it does have limitations and will not be a useful tool for everyone. The metaphor requires a person to give in to the emotions they are feeling but if the person is unable to do so this skill will be of no use to them.

Overall, the wave metaphor for emotion is a useful metaphor which can be implemented in everyday life to help people better feel their emotions in beneficial manners {{awkward}}.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion]]
* [[Emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Emotional self-efficacy]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotion suppression]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Anderson, K. (2022). Riding the Wave of Emotions — Mindsoother Therapy Center. Mindsoother Therapy Center. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.mindsoother.com/blog/riding-the-wave-of-emotions&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

Cherry, K. (2020). Cannon-Bard Theory and Physiological Reactions to Emotions. Verywell Mind. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-cannon-bard-theory-2794965&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Cherry, K. (2022). What Are the 6 Major Theories of Emotion?. Verywell Mind. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-emotion-2795717&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Delgado, J. (2022). The wave’s metaphor: How to control negative emotions before they control you. Psychology Spot.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://psychology-spot.com/how-to-control-negative-emotions/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Fight Or Flight Response - Psychology Tools. Psychology Tools. (2022). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/fight-or-flight-response/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Inglese, B. (2015). The Wave Is a Powerful Metaphorical Representation of the Inner Movement. International Coach Academy. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://coachcampus.com/coach-portfolios/coaching-models/wave/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Jepsen, D. (2022). Waves of Positive Emotions. Melbourne Child Psychology. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.melbournechildpsychology.com.au/blog/waves-of-positive-emotions/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

LaMorte, W. (2016). What is Culture?. Sphweb.bumc.bu.edu. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/PH/CulturalAwareness/CulturalAwareness2.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Lichtenstein, S. (2019). Riding the Wave: DBT and Distress Tolerance - Erika's Lighthouse. Erika's Lighthouse. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.erikaslighthouse.org/blog/riding-the-wave-dbt-and-distress-tolerance/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Matsuba, R. (2019). A Wave of Emotion: ‘The Great Wave’ by Katsushika Hokusai. Eventscribe.com. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.eventscribe.com/2019/ICAS11/fsPopup.asp&lt;/nowiki&gt;? 

Mohinuddin, M. (2017). Theories of Emotion: Evolutionary, Cannon-Bard, James-Lange and Schachter-Singer Theory. SWEduCareBD. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.sweducarebd.com/2017/08/major-theories-of-emotion-psychology.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Nickerson, C. (2021). James-Lange Theory of Emotion - Simply Psychology. Simplypsychology.org. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-the-james-lange-theory-of-emotion.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Riding out the Waves of Emotion with and in Nature - ...metaphorically speaking. ...metaphorically speaking. (2018). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.metaphoricallyspeaking.com.au/riding-out-the-waves-of-emotion-with-and-in-nature/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Theories of Emotion {{!}} Introduction to Psychology. Courses.lumenlearning.com. (2022). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/emotion/

Tomasello, C. (2021). 3 Ways that Emotions Are like a Wave. Beachsidecounseling.com. https://www.beachsidecounseling.com/post/3-ways-that-emotions-are-like-a-wave.

Turner, E. (2022). Cultural differences in emotional expressions. Paul Ekman Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.paulekman.com/blog/cultural-differences-in-emotional-expressions/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

What Are Emotions and Why Do They Matter?. Emotions. (2015) &lt;nowiki&gt;https://imotions.com/blog/emotions-matter/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Yarwood, M. (2022). Cognitive Appraisal Theory. Psu.pb.unizin.org. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://psu.pb.unizin.org/psych425/chapter/cognitive-appraisal-theory/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Greenwald, A. (2021, February 11). 4 tips to easily ride through a wave of emotions. Empower Your Mind Therapy. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://eymtherapy.com/blog/tips-ride-wave-of-emotions/&lt;/nowiki&gt; 

Hwang, H., &amp; Matsumoto, D. (2022). Functions of emotions. Noba. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://nobaproject.com/modules/functions-of-emotions&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Al-Shawaf, L., Conroy-Beam, D., Asao, K., &amp; Buss, D. (2015). Human Emotions: An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective. Emotion Review, 8(2), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914565518 

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Phillips, K. F. V., &amp; Power, M. J. (2007, April 10). A new self‐report measure of emotion ... - wiley online library. A new self-report measure of emotion regulation in adolescents: The Regulation of Emotions Questionnaire. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cpp.523

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Walinga, J., Stangor, C., Paul C. Price, R. S. J., Buss, D. M., Turkheimer, E., Weaver, I., Benjamin, A., Dijksterhuis, A., Fishbach, A., Malle, B., Kuhl, B., Laney, C., Brown, C. S., Pickett, C. L., Schroeder, D. A., Matsumoto, D., Watson, D., Poepsel, D. L., Diener, E., … Kashima, Y. (2019, June 28). 11.2 functions of emotions. Introduction to Psychology. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/functions-of-emotions/ 
Zajonc, R. (1998). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1998-07091-013.
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==Overview==
[[File:Sixteen faces expressing the human passions. Wellcome L0068375 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Range of Emotions]]The wave metaphor for [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotion]]s is a way to conceptualise emotions in a physical way. By viewing these neurological and physiological processes as a physical wave that they can see it can help to gain control and perspective and take hold of the emotion before the emotion takes hold of you{{gr}}. This physical manifestation is a vital tool to aid in emotion regulation in everyday life.

The wave metaphor for emotion discusses the representation of the inner movement that emotions create. The changes and affects emotions can cause within a person's mind can range from light, positive, happy and calm on one end of the spectrum to negative, anger, heavy and depressing.

Emotions have the potential to arise suddenly from both external and internal stimuli. Emotions can be uncontrollable and unpreventable without proper guidance on how to experience emotions in a beneficial way. {{rewrite}} 

The wave metaphor for emotion is also referred to as &quot;riding the wave&quot;, highlighting the many different interpretations of this metaphor and how it can be modified and adapted to fit different peoples{{gr}} needs (Greenwald, 2021).

'''Case Study'''

Sophie has problems regulating her emotions, which was causing her distress. She started seeing a Dialectical Behavioural Therapist {{inline comment|no need for capitalisation}} to help her gain better control of her emotions. Instead of pushing the emotion away or reacting in the heat of the moment, Sophie was taught to visualise riding her emotions as if she was a surfer, remembering that the emotions she feels will only be temporary and will pass.

[[File:Surfer in Santa cruz 11-8-9 -1.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. A surfer riding an intense wave]]
[[File:Surfer enjoying the waves.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. A surfer peacefully riding a calm wave]]

When a surfer is challenged by harsh and troubling waves, they do not try to surf against the waves and go against the ocean. Instead, they choose to move with the wave, catching the natural flow the waves come in from the tide. Emotions are very similar to waves in this sense. People often attempt to fight against feeling strong negative emotions, which can lead to long-term disadvantages and complications.

In Sophies{{gr}} case, when she became overwhelmed and frustrated with her situation, she delayed and denied her emotions by impulsively shopping online, which then lead to financial strain and continued the cycle. Now when Sophie feels these emotions, she accepts the emotion and lets the experience wash over her, recognising what she is feeling, yet understanding the emotion is temporary and not all of who she is. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the wave metaphor?
* What are emotions? 
* How can the wave metaphor be used with psychological theories?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Emotion==
This section describes all of the different categories of emotion and how emotion interacts with the wave metaphor for emotion.

=== What are emotions? ===
Emotions are &quot;a complex reaction pattern, involving experimental, behavioural and physiological elements&quot;. Emotions are individual processss{{sp}} of dealing with stimuli and situations which hold personal significance. Emotions are split into three categories: a subjective experience, physiological response and a behavioural or expressive response (Imotions, 2015).

=== What are the differences between emotions, feelings, and moods? ===
Feelings occur from emotional experiences. This happens as a conscious experience, developing from an emotion. Feelings can be influenced by memories, beliefs, and other factors. Feelings are categorised in the same classification as hunger or pain. 

[[w: Mood (psychology)|Mood]] is described as &quot;any short-lived emotional state, usually of low intensity&quot; . Moods lack stimuli and show no clear starting point which makes them different from emotions. 

=== What are the purpose of emotions? ===
Emotions are an integrated part of life and human beings. They also serve three different types of functions. Experiencing all own {{huh}} the range of emotions is important both the positive and negative emotions Within the purpose of emotions there is seen to be three kinds of functions in which emotions serve (Walinga et al., 2019):

==== Interpersonal functions of emotion ====
The interpersonal function of emotion occurs externally and is used to communicate with people around us; sharing our needs, desires, and dislikes through the use of facial expressions, words, body posture, and more (Walinga et al., 2019).

==== Intrapersonal functions of emotion ====
The intrapersonal function of emotion describes what happens within a person, both physiologically and psychologically in their body and minds (Hwang &amp; Matsumoto, 2022). 

==== Social and cultural functions of emotion ====
The social and cultural functions of emotions are to help maintain the productiveness and cohesiveness of society and Culture (Hwang &amp; Matsumoto, 2022). 

=== How are emotions and waves alike? ===
Both emotions and waves have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Waves emerge small from far away and travel long distances over the ocean, getting bigger as time moves on. This is similar to emotions in the sense that emotions can be triggered from all sorts of different trigger locations and events, and the longer the emotion dwells, the bigger they can become. 

Emotions have rhythm and flow similar to waves. Tidal waves and emotions can be overwhelming at first from the size and intensity however, both will recede and ease. It has been found that people process and accept emotions within 90 seconds (Delgado, 2022). Both positive and negative emotions are held onto by choice (Delgado, 2022).

Another comparison for waves and emotions is they cannot be stopped. People are unable to control how they feel in situations, they aren't controllable {{repeated}} (Delgado, 2022). When feelings arise, people are not able to stop them but can control what happens next. People can learn to manage, process, and accept feelings to cope in healthier ways. This allows people to take control over their reactions to negative emotions instead of resisting and suppressing them. Emotions and waves both need to be ridden. By riding the wave, people can take control of their emotions opposed to them overwhelming the people feeling them {{rewrite}}.

=== Does the metaphor apply to both negative and positive emotions? ===
The wave metaphor is applicable to both positive and negative emotions. The analogy is often used to describe negative emotions, as they are usually the overwhelming emotions people struggle to deal with. Positive emotions can be strongly felt if people allow them to be {{rewrite}}. Many emotions fall under the category of positive emotions, including: fascination, motivation, appreciation, and safety. People often dwell on negative emotions and remember those feelings, but let the positive emotions fade away (Delgado, 2022). Viewing positive emotions through the wave metaphor allows people to enjoy the emotion, flowing over them similar to a wave flowing over us.

=== Steps to &quot;riding the wave&quot; of emotion ===
# Awareness and acknowledgment of the emotion
# Experience the emotion 
# Understand this emotion is only one part of you
# Accept the emotion as it is without categorising it

=== Emotional intelligence ===
[[Emotional intelligence]], also known as emotional quotient refers to the ability to regulate and identify a person's own emotions and those of others. People with high emotional intelligence build greater relationships, have higher job satisfaction, and regulate their emotions with better speed and understanding (2019){{source}}. 


Being able to identify and regulate a person's own emotions is one of the foundations of being emotionally intellegent {{spelling}} and possessing useful tools in order to do this {{rewrite}}. The wave metaphor for emotion can be used to boost levels of emotional intelligence, by being able to process a person's emotions and accurately respond to the emotional needs of other people. 

==History==
This section describes the origins of the wave metaphor for emotion and the differences culture plays {{awkward}}  in understanding the metaphor.

===Origins ===
[[File:Tsunami by hokusai 19th century.jpg|thumb|Figure 4.The Great Wave by Katsushika Hokusai]]

The wave metaphor for emotions dates back to 'The Great Wave' published in 1831 by Katsushika Hokusai. The Great Wave was part of a 36 views of Mt. Fuji series; the art was used to describe a natural disaster of Mt. Fuji's slopes causes by heavy rainfall. This is one of the many interpretations the painting inspired being used to represent deep emotional experiences such as fear, helplessness and nationalism. The grave wave also referred to as the wave metaphor is now used to describe the everyday emotional experience of reacting to stimulus, feeling the emotion and the actions taken after the feeling.

=== Cultural implications and differences ===
[[Culture]] is defined as the encompassing atmosphere in which people live life. Arts, music, fashion, traditions, beliefs, and institutions all contribute to creating culture. Each culture has their own set of rules, customs, and values which shapes how people feel, act, and think. 

Throughout culture, there are concepts which are cross cultural and universal but then become culturally specific based on their own values and beliefs. Emotion is a universal concept with general meaning across cultures. There are seven basic emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, contempt, and disgust {{source}}. There are also general themes which trigger each emotion and correlating facial expressions of the universal emotions. From these universal principles, the semantics then become culturally specific. Social guidelines and etiquette of when, where, and how to express and display emotions. The attitudes viewed and the language used and what events evoke emotional responses. Culture influences peoples emotional experiences by determining if the person can relate feelings to the event, shaping the emotional experience.

The wave metaphor for emotions in principal is a universal concept, that it can be understood beyond cultural bounds but the relation and specific meaning can be interpreted differently. There are some distinct differences in culture between western and eastern cultures and the way they view emotion. Western cultures are very individualistic and high emotion arousal centred, whereas eastern cultures are collectivist and place importance on low arousal emotions. These differences often{{sp}} insight to the potential different understanding of the wave metaphor. Western culture uses the wave metaphor to describe high intensity emotions with big waves. Eastern culture utilises the wave metaphor for low intensity emotions with many little waves with small peaks. (Lim, N. 2016) {{inline comment|in-text reference not in APA  format}} .

== Theories ==
This section describes the different psychological theories of emotion and how they interact and utilise the benefits of the wave metaphor for emotion. 

===Evolutionary theory of emotion===
The [[w: Evolution of emotion|evolutionary theory of emotion]] focuses on emotions as an adaptive problem solving phenomena. The theory is traditionally based on a selection of emotions which carry particular universal signals, universally identified and observable in other primates. This theory originated in the 1870s, by Charles Darwin, with an interest in facial expressions, believing they were innate in nature and hard-wired {{source}}. Darwin saw facial expressions as an act which allows people to quickly judge a person's emotions and understand and communicate intentions. Darwin concluded that emotions evolved to secure human and animal survival. The desire to be loved and receive affection encourages people to seek partners and reproduce, continuing the human survival. Whereas fear forces people to react to the source of danger approaching them, leading to either fight or flight. These responses to environmental stimuli are driven by emotion to react appropriately and raise their odds of surviving and succeeding. People who are able to correctly interpret and respond to emotions have a greater likelihood of success, survival, and safety, both physically and emotionally. People and animals will exhibit body language to express their emotions and possessing the ability to recognise them is an evolutionary example of adaptive emotions (Cherry, 2022).

=== The James-Lange Theory of Emotion ===
The [[wikipedia:James–Lange_theory|James-Lange Theory of Emotion]], theorised in the 1880s, considered the notion that bodily changes which is followed by the formation of an emotional experience based on the bodily reaction {{huh}} {{source}} . James-Lange believed that emotions were caused by bodily sensations. For instance when a person smiles, they become happy or when a person experiences their heart rate increase they become afraid. This process works through stimulating events which trigger physical reactions. The physical reaction is allocated to a corresponding emotion. 

This theory of emotion can be linked to the wave metaphor as the stimulating event as the start of the wave. The physical reaction represents the peak of the wave and the emotional reaction is how the person chooses to process their emotion, either fighting or riding the wave.

=== Cognitive appraisal theory ===
Cognitive appraisal theory describes the act of a person processing and analysing an evoking event which prompts a bodily reaction to the event. According to James-Lange, cognitive appraisals can happen consciously or subconsciously discussed by Schachter-Singer {{who}}. It was commonly found amongst cognitive appraisal theorists that people experiencing the same evoking event would experience differing emotions {{citation needed}}. These findings imply that people can comprehend evoking events in differing reactions which causes ranging emotional experiences.

There are currently two perspectives of cognitive appraisal theory used to account for the interaction between emotions and cognitive appraisals. The first perspective suggests that cognitive appraisals cause emotions. This perspective implies that the manner a person interprets the evoking event shapes which emotion is produced. The different cognitive appraisals people make allow people to intepret evoking events differently and feel different emotions as a result. The emotions people feel from the evoking event describes peoples differing viewpoints on the same situations.

The second perspective of cognitive appraisal theories follows the opposite sequence, believing that the emotion comes first and causes the appraisal. The person feels the emotion after experiencing physiological and behavioural changes.

Through analysis of this theory in conjunction with the wave metaphor it can be seen that a person will be in an evoking situation, the start of the wave, the appraisal of the event is the peak of the wave and the emotion being felt is the flow and crash of the wave {{rewrite}}. 

=== [[wikipedia:Cannon-Bard_theory|Cannon-Bard Theory]] ===
This psychological theory also referred to as the thalamic theory of emotion, takes a biological perspective, believing that physiological and emotional experiences occur together and separately. As a person feels an emotion, they will also experience a physiological reaction such as increased heart rate, shaking voice, and sweating. The Cannon-Bard theory states that emotions are the result of the thalamus sending messages to the brain as a response to the presenting stimulus, prompting a physiological reaction {{source}} . 

The amygdala receives a signal from the thalamus when an event occurs. The automatic nervous system also receives a signal from the thalamus, which causes the physical reaction to occur. This theory applies to both positive and negative emotions in any situation where a person experiences an emotional reaction. 

The Cannon-Bard theory and the wave metaphor for emotion are similar in process as they both happen simultaneously and continuously. People feel emotions instantly when presented with an evoking situation, rising and falling with intensity in the same nature a wave flows. 

=== Dialectical Behavioural Therapy ===
Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT) is a subtype of talk therapy derived from cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) which had been modified to help people who feel emotions at intense and high rates or have been diagnosed with borderline personality disorder.

The aim of DBT is to help people understand and accept concerning feelings. In order to do this, DBT teaches peoples{{gr}} skills which are implemented to manage their emotions and utilise the skills to change their lives with positivity {{awkward}}. DBT teaches patients distress tolerance, emotional regulation, mindfulness, and interpersonal effectiveness. 

Within DBT, patients are taught to optimise the use of the wave metaphor as a visual aid for coping with intense emotions they perceive as being uncontrollable{{fact}}. Instead of letting their emotions consume them or making rash decisions, they experience the emotion as if a wave was washing over them, understanding that fighting the emotion will only worsen the damage and delay the healing process{{gr}}{{fact}}.

== Practical capabilities ==
This section discusses the practical capabilities {{inline comment|Maybe rephrase to &quot;practical utility&quot; or &quot;practical application&quot;}}  of using the wave metaphor for emotion to benefit people in everyday life and its links to other psychological processes.

=== Fight or flight ===
[[File:The Fight or Flight Response.png|thumb|Figure 5.Fight or Flight response diagram describing the kinds of physical effects it can cause]]

[[wikipedia:Fight-or-flight_response|Fight or flight]] is a physiological response which happens automatically as a response to any event that a person finds threatening or alarming. The sympathetic nervous system is alerted by the idea of danger and the body prepares to react in either fight or flight as an acute stress response. This bodily reaction to perceived threats are evolutionary survival preservation mechanisms to increase the likelihood of surviving the situation.

Fight or flight is a useful survival technique but when used in unnecessary and excessive states, this coping mechanism has been correlated with a variety of anxiety disorders and other clinical conditions{{fact}}. An important aspect of treatment for anxiety is an elevated knowledge of the physiological need for fight and flight and the consequences of excessive use of the response.

People who understand how to control this response have better understanding and control over their emotions and possess the ability to ride the wave of their emotions instead of letting the emotion take over and cause unneeded fight or flight responses (Psychology Tools, 2022). By viewing the emotion they are feeling as an ocean wave they are able to stop the fight or flight response from occurring and gain better control on experiencing the emotion and processing forward. 

=== Trauma response symptoms ===
A [[trauma]] response is an emotional reaction to a traumatic event. Traumatic events include natural disasters, rape, accidents, war, death, and many more. Trauma symptoms have a range of effects including short term and long term effects. Denial and shock are associated to happen soon after the event{{awkward}}. Long term effects including flashbacks, physical illness or pain, mood swings and strained relationships {{gr}} (Cherry, 2022).

Trauma symptom responses are strongly associated with the fight or flight responses due to the emotions being uncomfortable, harsh and difficult to cope with. Humans instinctively try to avoid painful emotions; however, this strategy can be harmful and cause emotions to increase in intensity and become more detrimental (Cherry, 2022).

Therapists of trauma patients have used the wave metaphor as a visual technique to help take back control of their emotions (Cherry, 2022). People get scared when they are being approached by massive waves in the ocean and will try to fight the wave and end up tiring themselves out and making the situation worse. This process is similar to peoples{{gr}} trauma responses, emerged in strong and negative emotions people try to fight them and prolong their suffering. Instead they need to surrender to the wave and ride or float through the negative emotions.

=== Emotion regulation ===
Emotional regulation is a developing field in psychology regarding the processes associated with emotional reactions, including: recognising, modifying, evaluating, and monitoring situations. People vary in emotional regulation techniques and capabilities, using both interpersonal and intrapersonal resources to regulate their emotions. Studies have found that people who often regulate their emotions are significantly more likely to report higher quality of life (Phillips &amp; Power, 2007). Emotion regulation is a dynamic system process, incorporating psychological, biological and sociological factors which affect how people can self regulate. One perspective of emotion regulation is that emotions are a component of general self regulatory systems maintaining and modifying our behaviour to achieve goals. From this stance, the emotion being regulated is a combination of all the interacting subsystems (Butler, 2011). 

Emotional regulation is vital for both good psychological and physiological health. Studies have found that the relationship between the mind and body can have both positive and negative correlations, including functioning of immune and cardiovascular systems, morbidity, mortality and disease severity. People with poor ability to regulate their emotions experience worse states of physical health and are prone to diseases and shorter life expectancies. By being able to regulate a person's own emotions can be linked to proactive adapting to handle the enviormental{{sp}} demands associated with being emotional intelligent(Song et al., 2015) {{rewrite}}. 

From these understandings of emotional regulation and its importance in living a healthy life, it can be seen that optimising skills to achieve high emotion regulation is beneficial. The wave metaphor for emotion is an emotional regulation technique which requires the person to identify the emotion they are feeling, experience the feeling as it comes and then move forward accordingly with positive motions. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Reflection questions:'''
* How does fight or flight interact with the wave metaphor?
* How can visualising the wave metaphor help people deal with trauma symptoms? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
The wave metaphor for emotion is a useful and relevant tool for people to better understand and control their emotions. The analogy originated from the depiction of the art work 'The Great Wave', which inspired thoughtful discourse and understanding of peoples {{grammar}} emotions. Understanding a person's own emotions is a vital and crucial part of life which promotes happiness and health in life. Waves crash and flow with the potential to overwhelm and drown the person. Emotions can hold the same power over people who do not know how to properly deal with them.

The useful visualisation of feeling emotions can be linked to many theories, including the evolutionary theory of emotions, cognitive appraisal theory, James-Lange theory of emotion, Dialectical Behavioral Therapy, and the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion. There are also many practical applications of the wave metaphor, being used to raise mental health, reduce trauma symptoms, boost emotional intelligence, emotionally regulate, and correctly use fight or flight responses in necessary situations.

Although the wave metaphor for emotion is a useful tool which allows people to help guide and control their emotions, it does have limitations and will not be a useful tool for everyone. The metaphor requires a person to give in to the emotions they are feeling but if the person is unable to do so this skill will be of no use to them.

Overall, the wave metaphor for emotion is a useful metaphor which can be implemented in everyday life to help people better feel their emotions in beneficial manners {{awkward}}.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Coping and emotion]]
* [[Emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Emotional self-efficacy]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotion suppression]]

==References==
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Anderson, K. (2022). Riding the Wave of Emotions — Mindsoother Therapy Center. Mindsoother Therapy Center. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.mindsoother.com/blog/riding-the-wave-of-emotions&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

Cherry, K. (2020). Cannon-Bard Theory and Physiological Reactions to Emotions. Verywell Mind. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-cannon-bard-theory-2794965&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Cherry, K. (2022). What Are the 6 Major Theories of Emotion?. Verywell Mind. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-emotion-2795717&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Delgado, J. (2022). The wave’s metaphor: How to control negative emotions before they control you. Psychology Spot.&lt;nowiki&gt;https://psychology-spot.com/how-to-control-negative-emotions/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Fight Or Flight Response - Psychology Tools. Psychology Tools. (2022). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.psychologytools.com/resource/fight-or-flight-response/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Inglese, B. (2015). The Wave Is a Powerful Metaphorical Representation of the Inner Movement. International Coach Academy. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://coachcampus.com/coach-portfolios/coaching-models/wave/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Jepsen, D. (2022). Waves of Positive Emotions. Melbourne Child Psychology. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.melbournechildpsychology.com.au/blog/waves-of-positive-emotions/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

LaMorte, W. (2016). What is Culture?. Sphweb.bumc.bu.edu. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/PH/CulturalAwareness/CulturalAwareness2.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Lichtenstein, S. (2019). Riding the Wave: DBT and Distress Tolerance - Erika's Lighthouse. Erika's Lighthouse. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.erikaslighthouse.org/blog/riding-the-wave-dbt-and-distress-tolerance/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Matsuba, R. (2019). A Wave of Emotion: ‘The Great Wave’ by Katsushika Hokusai. Eventscribe.com. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.eventscribe.com/2019/ICAS11/fsPopup.asp&lt;/nowiki&gt;? 

Mohinuddin, M. (2017). Theories of Emotion: Evolutionary, Cannon-Bard, James-Lange and Schachter-Singer Theory. SWEduCareBD. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.sweducarebd.com/2017/08/major-theories-of-emotion-psychology.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Nickerson, C. (2021). James-Lange Theory of Emotion - Simply Psychology. Simplypsychology.org. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.simplypsychology.org/what-is-the-james-lange-theory-of-emotion.html&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Riding out the Waves of Emotion with and in Nature - ...metaphorically speaking. ...metaphorically speaking. (2018). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.metaphoricallyspeaking.com.au/riding-out-the-waves-of-emotion-with-and-in-nature/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Theories of Emotion {{!}} Introduction to Psychology. Courses.lumenlearning.com. (2022). https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/chapter/emotion/

Tomasello, C. (2021). 3 Ways that Emotions Are like a Wave. Beachsidecounseling.com. https://www.beachsidecounseling.com/post/3-ways-that-emotions-are-like-a-wave.

Turner, E. (2022). Cultural differences in emotional expressions. Paul Ekman Group. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.paulekman.com/blog/cultural-differences-in-emotional-expressions/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

What Are Emotions and Why Do They Matter?. Emotions. (2015) &lt;nowiki&gt;https://imotions.com/blog/emotions-matter/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Yarwood, M. (2022). Cognitive Appraisal Theory. Psu.pb.unizin.org. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://psu.pb.unizin.org/psych425/chapter/cognitive-appraisal-theory/&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Greenwald, A. (2021, February 11). 4 tips to easily ride through a wave of emotions. Empower Your Mind Therapy. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://eymtherapy.com/blog/tips-ride-wave-of-emotions/&lt;/nowiki&gt; 

Hwang, H., &amp; Matsumoto, D. (2022). Functions of emotions. Noba. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://nobaproject.com/modules/functions-of-emotions&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Al-Shawaf, L., Conroy-Beam, D., Asao, K., &amp; Buss, D. (2015). Human Emotions: An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective. Emotion Review, 8(2), 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073914565518 

Begum, J. (2021). What Is Cannon Bard Theory?. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-cannon-bard-theory. 

Butler, E. A. (2011, August 1). Three views of emotion regulation and health - butler - 2011 - compass hub. Three Views of Emotion Regulation and Health. https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00372.x

James, W. (1992). The emotions. The Emotions, 1, 93-135. https://doi.org/10.1037/10735-003 

La Trobe University. (2019, September 17). Why emotional intelligence makes you more successful. Nest. https://www.latrobe.edu.au/nest/why-emotional-intelligence-makes-you-more-successful/

Lim, N. (2016). Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West. Integrative Medicine Research, 5(2), 105-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2016.03.004 

Phillips, K. F. V., &amp; Power, M. J. (2007, April 10). A new self‐report measure of emotion ... - wiley online library. A new self-report measure of emotion regulation in adolescents: The Regulation of Emotions Questionnaire. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cpp.523

Song, Y., Lu, H., Hu, S., Xu, M., Li, X., &amp; Liu, J. (2015, April). Regulating emotion to improve physical health through the amygdala. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4381236/

The Science of Emotion: Exploring the Basics of Emotional Psychology {{!}} UWA Online. UWA Online. (2022). https://online.uwa.edu/news/emotional-psychology/. 

Trauma. American Psychological Association. (2022). https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma. 

Walinga, J., Stangor, C., Paul C. Price, R. S. J., Buss, D. M., Turkheimer, E., Weaver, I., Benjamin, A., Dijksterhuis, A., Fishbach, A., Malle, B., Kuhl, B., Laney, C., Brown, C. S., Pickett, C. L., Schroeder, D. A., Matsumoto, D., Watson, D., Poepsel, D. L., Diener, E., … Kashima, Y. (2019, June 28). 11.2 functions of emotions. Introduction to Psychology. https://openpress.usask.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/functions-of-emotions/ 
Zajonc, R. (1998). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1998-07091-013.
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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
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      <text bytes="1494" sha1="s9sj8i8074voke505p8cw8k6eqokl0a" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Lithuania in European Union.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Lithuania in European Union]]
I'm from [[wikipedia:Lithuania|Lithuania]]. I’m working towards my bachelor’s in psychology, but by profession and education, I’m a historian. 

== Hobbies ==
* Philosophy, especially [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ existential philosophy]
* [[wikipedia:Modernist_poetry|Europenian modernist poetry]]
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==

{{ic|Use a numbered list as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Artificial intelligence and academic motivation#Comment on the scenario|Provided feedback on a Book chapte]]

[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457190?entry_id=809651 Posted  to the UCLearn discussion forum] 

[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Fear_of_failure_and_procrastination_2&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2827007 Minor grammar edits]

[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237?entry_id=814089 Shared a few useful resources on the discussion forum]

[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/459237?entry_id=814121 Shared a helpful website]</text>
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    <title>Bully Metric Timestamps</title>
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      <text bytes="57505" sha1="jhtkk3706tr4iuoiyrclveawu3nuyv3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>jhtkk3706tr4iuoiyrclveawu3nuyv3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832433</id>
      <parentid>2832432</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T17:57:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */</comment>
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      <text bytes="60807" sha1="9y6uzjtn81xkvmc7r93r8z4et2vyn8b" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="60515" sha1="3n8ntdyhf7ys21reytvknpquqsvhuzv" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="60808" sha1="8z7no1javpntussbes3m77ht1hqvs32" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]


{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>8z7no1javpntussbes3m77ht1hqvs32</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832436</id>
      <parentid>2832435</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T17:59:59Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <comment>/* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */</comment>
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      <text bytes="59995" sha1="cqyhse1cq7rvkgakkphl8ylmcge6idf" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]


{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="60807" sha1="ltk2bax71tnzfa9kby0jx9o6qfycyk3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    </revision>
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      <text bytes="60845" sha1="llmv9uh2vin06vptc9lpbz3j1c2rbjr" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>llmv9uh2vin06vptc9lpbz3j1c2rbjr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832445</id>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* Earth's Great Year */</comment>
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      <text bytes="60868" sha1="s409miejus1ftd7u04afou2rcges0qy" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times  a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>s409miejus1ftd7u04afou2rcges0qy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832446</id>
      <parentid>2832445</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:06:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earth's Great Year */</comment>
      <origin>2832446</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="60889" sha1="01gxww49hhxfv566w3jki20dc85351w" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; line-height: 1.6;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''&lt;br /&gt;
• July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="60929" sha1="qw739w0duy4juug68mgsckmw97qg04t" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== Bully Timestamp Duration ===

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>qw739w0duy4juug68mgsckmw97qg04t</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832448</id>
      <parentid>2832447</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Duration */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61122" sha1="trw8s9jp4ty9vxbtw8g6dc9za4zjlkh" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    </revision>
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      <id>2832449</id>
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      <text bytes="61217" sha1="t2ow1rp7ecek3rabjd1e0n2zq3oempv" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>t2ow1rp7ecek3rabjd1e0n2zq3oempv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832450</id>
      <parentid>2832449</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:23:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Duration */</comment>
      <origin>2832450</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61221" sha1="adjis32wizxavmk9h0nkxuqsoavali6" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>adjis32wizxavmk9h0nkxuqsoavali6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832451</id>
      <parentid>2832450</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:27:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */</comment>
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      <text bytes="58663" sha1="f7k7sltwfpj5u9h33memd8o8e5gw6ix" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>f7k7sltwfpj5u9h33memd8o8e5gw6ix</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832452</id>
      <parentid>2832451</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:28:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Realization */</comment>
      <origin>2832452</origin>
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      <text bytes="61221" sha1="13ijrfs7wb4bi1umz9shlujao7dqsnz" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>13ijrfs7wb4bi1umz9shlujao7dqsnz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832453</id>
      <parentid>2832452</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:31:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */</comment>
      <origin>2832453</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61220" sha1="hl5noxcis9ax2qip2yei19h3oum5hd3" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832454</id>
      <parentid>2832453</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:37:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */</comment>
      <origin>2832454</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61226" sha1="nizun9nesq2u3ayy41wcx67bixkrdsf" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>nizun9nesq2u3ayy41wcx67bixkrdsf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832456</id>
      <parentid>2832454</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:49:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */</comment>
      <origin>2832456</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61341" sha1="9ijzqph9caofcun9yjmh1vi7dsot8az" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>9ijzqph9caofcun9yjmh1vi7dsot8az</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832457</id>
      <parentid>2832456</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:51:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Why do we need Bully timestamps? */</comment>
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      <text bytes="57535" sha1="d3h486f8en8ly61hqpudwmlakhbmfho" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's Great Year ===
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>d3h486f8en8ly61hqpudwmlakhbmfho</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832458</id>
      <parentid>2832457</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:52:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earth's Great Year */</comment>
      <origin>2832458</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="57537" sha1="c7y038hfkp7re150fozasg387m8ckqs" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

=== Earth's tropical year ===
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>c7y038hfkp7re150fozasg387m8ckqs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832459</id>
      <parentid>2832458</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:52:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earth's tropical year */</comment>
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      <text bytes="57539" sha1="c4ux5bdgaq373q9gabh5zonbgct0tri" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

=== Earth's sidereal year ===
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>c4ux5bdgaq373q9gabh5zonbgct0tri</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832460</id>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* Earth's sidereal year */</comment>
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      <text bytes="57541" sha1="ruunbfti49rxstiqksmcmg9qgswdjls" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

=== The Metonic cycle ===
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>ruunbfti49rxstiqksmcmg9qgswdjls</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832461</id>
      <parentid>2832460</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:53:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Metonic cycle */</comment>
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      <text bytes="57543" sha1="gr3w0xzfjq03nc9yf9jnsxzvw404hnk" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>gr3w0xzfjq03nc9yf9jnsxzvw404hnk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832462</id>
      <parentid>2832461</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:53:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Realization */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61349" sha1="d25veh98whxd8l2lumj5i1j14r06utu" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>d25veh98whxd8l2lumj5i1j14r06utu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832463</id>
      <parentid>2832462</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:09:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61258" sha1="ivd8x14yjb8tnj9lyfk20fcw4w5yyqn" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>ivd8x14yjb8tnj9lyfk20fcw4w5yyqn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832464</id>
      <parentid>2832463</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:09:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Why do we need Bully timestamps? */</comment>
      <origin>2832464</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61260" sha1="nenz2wr1p3zbut779xp9nlm2styvbrf" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832465</id>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* Decontextualized Bully Timestamps */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61351" sha1="4uvdletc1xy9mf8s4luervoxd6r1o4k" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 6a''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 6a''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>4uvdletc1xy9mf8s4luervoxd6r1o4k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832467</id>
      <parentid>2832465</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:14:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time */</comment>
      <origin>2832467</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61333" sha1="1g9u0h0hpelnfwad9rmv1jo23kvl5h0" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>1g9u0h0hpelnfwad9rmv1jo23kvl5h0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832468</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:18:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <comment>/* Decontextualized Bully Timestamps */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61333" sha1="98vpj54hje0pgjys8nr9vshww3cv4i7" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>98vpj54hje0pgjys8nr9vshww3cv4i7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832469</id>
      <parentid>2832468</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:21:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Estimation */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61335" sha1="quqj6gis3y1shc6u7ehyw5ns4gwfk3l" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Bully Timestamp Estimation ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>quqj6gis3y1shc6u7ehyw5ns4gwfk3l</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832470</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:23:08Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Estimation */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61333" sha1="98vpj54hje0pgjys8nr9vshww3cv4i7" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 6a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 6a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 6b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 6b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 6c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 6d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 6d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 6e is the same as is shown in Figure 6d, but Figure 6e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 6e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6f is similar to the table in Figure 6c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 6c was for large z values, Figure 6f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>98vpj54hje0pgjys8nr9vshww3cv4i7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832474</id>
      <parentid>2832470</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:34:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bully Timestamp Estimation */</comment>
      <origin>2832474</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61333" sha1="csfe0wbsjpmh0186g0li5vlm5lop2rd" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 8b: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 8c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 8d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 8d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 8e is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 8e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 8f is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="61339" sha1="bz9jbp11xj46esoxnhyg1j7nem8bcvi" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 8c contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8c: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 8d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 8d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 8e is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 8e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 8f is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>bz9jbp11xj46esoxnhyg1j7nem8bcvi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832476</id>
      <parentid>2832475</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:36:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
      <origin>2832476</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61351" sha1="bznx5wvow3ltj15zfcepu99zlf90oul" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 8d (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 8d: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 8e is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 8e: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 8f is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 8: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>bznx5wvow3ltj15zfcepu99zlf90oul</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832477</id>
      <parentid>2832476</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61388" sha1="l3go8fil6vbgtb89zf2ixzy0huha6z1" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>l3go8fil6vbgtb89zf2ixzy0huha6z1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832482</id>
      <parentid>2832477</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T21:53:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
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      <text bytes="61370" sha1="bzgfdml0yd54te8mq17dfrsgcljqsig" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>bzgfdml0yd54te8mq17dfrsgcljqsig</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832483</id>
      <parentid>2832482</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T21:53:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* One Solar Radius */</comment>
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      <text bytes="61388" sha1="l3go8fil6vbgtb89zf2ixzy0huha6z1" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>l3go8fil6vbgtb89zf2ixzy0huha6z1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832484</id>
      <parentid>2832483</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T21:57:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* One Solar Radius */</comment>
      <origin>2832484</origin>
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      <text bytes="61400" sha1="j4ij6pa13ntg9kpyu4jrm69j3gl0qqq" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;&quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="61420" sha1="c6ogk7az167ssmug7p4im6h5eblfont" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>c6ogk7az167ssmug7p4im6h5eblfont</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832486</id>
      <parentid>2832485</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T22:01:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Heliosphere */</comment>
      <origin>2832486</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61452" sha1="5jmthe1m19fn42qnbftbae250hsws1m" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <id>2832487</id>
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      <text bytes="61367" sha1="13blfyjo3oslgf0isjj3qy4hkjjqeul" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&amp;hairsp;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>13blfyjo3oslgf0isjj3qy4hkjjqeul</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832488</id>
      <parentid>2832487</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T22:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Naked-Eye Stars */</comment>
      <origin>2832488</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="61516" sha1="6qe66kpb3tle17v6regp3fob1js5xhs" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the Sun's orbit around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp occurs each time the Sun advances by roughly one solar radius along its path through the cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|upright=2.2|center|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]

== One Solar Radius ==
The Sun hurtles around the Milky Way Galaxy at a blistering 0.076% of the speed of light ([https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.09466 229.0 ± 0.2 kilometers per second]). Yet, even at this staggering pace, it takes about five-sixths of an hour for the Sun to traverse a distance equal to its own radius. This highlights the truly colossal size of our star, which boasts a radius of 2.3206 light-seconds (695,700 kilometers).

'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''.

During each '''3,055-second''' period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over '''2.33 light-seconds''', which is slightly more than one solar radius (&lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 2.33 \text{ ls} \gtrapprox R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', it is a vast, oblong, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into surrounding space. While somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, the latter is a comparatively thin layer of gas held near the planetary surface, whereas the heliosphere is a plasma constantly blasted into space by the Sun's extreme heat and energy.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is so vast that if it were truly spherical, it would take the Sun roughly 6.344 years to travel a distance equivalent to the heliosphere's diameter. The digit in the '''fifth position''' of a Bully timestamp represents this orbital distance.

Figure 2 illustrates the motion of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. Timestamp 8209 ED00 0000 is defined to have occurred at exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16, 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

During each 6.344-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 306 astronomical units, which is slightly more than 65,536 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{4}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 306 \text{ AU} \gtrapprox 16^{4}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Naked-Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (not to scale) across 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' corresponds to approximately 383,000 B.C., while timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., representing a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. 

The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a cyan dashed line marking 100 parsecs. The Sun travels a little less than this distance during each 416,000-year interval, which is tracked by the digit in the '''ninth position''' of the Bully timestamp. Because a large percentage of naked-eye stars sit within this 100-parsec radius, the appearance of Earth's night sky changes completely over this timeframe.

[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of naked-eye stars binned according to brightness and distance from the Sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the Sun than 100 parsecs, which is the distance the Sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of naked-eye stars are within this 100-parsec travel distance of the Sun.]]

During each 415,792-year period, the Sun travels a distance (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;) of a little over 97 parsecs, which is slightly more than 4,294,967,296 solar radii (&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt;).

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \gtrapprox 97 \text{ pc} \gtrapprox 16^{8}\,R_{\odot}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== The Bully Milky Way ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3e''': Division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3e''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 32 equal polar sectors (yellow grid). Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000'''. These represent the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D., respectively, assuming a full orbital path around the Milky Way of roughly 50,000 parsecs.

In the lower half of the image, cyan lines further divide a single yellow sector into 16 equal subsectors. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center in Figure 3e, corresponding to the 6 o'clock position, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle of the Sun at Bully timestamp 820A 0000 0000, estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D. The nine cyan grid lines to the right of the red line mark the Sun's polar angle for Bully timestamps 8201 0000 0000 through 8209 0000 0000. Meanwhile, the five cyan grid lines to the left of the red line indicate the polar angle for timestamps 820B 0000 0000 through 820F 0000 0000.

&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top: 2em;margin-bottom: 2em; &quot;&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,t_{\odot} \approx 212.9 \text{ million years}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
512 \times 16^{8}\,d_{\odot} \sim 50,000 \text{ parsecs}
&lt;/math&gt;

[[Bully_Metric_Math_and_Mnemonics|See Full Calculations]]
&lt;/div&gt;

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[File:Galactic centre orbits.svg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 4a''':Inferred orbits of 6 stars around the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* at the Milky Way's center&lt;ref name=&quot;Eisenhauer&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Eisenhauer|first=F.|display-authors=et al. |title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=July 20, 2005|volume=628|issue=1|pages=246–259|doi=10.1086/430667|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E|arxiv=astro-ph/0502129|s2cid=122485461 }}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, labeled S2 in '''Figure 4a''', completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance from the Sun to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:
&amp;hairsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}} \\
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;
If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

==== Idealized Galactic Weeks ====
[[File:Milky_Way_map_by_Gaia_High_Density_Weeks_Grid.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|'''Figure 3f''': Division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks of solar travel (yellow grid).]]

'''Figure 3f''' illustrates the division of the Milky Way into 52 equal galactic weeks (yellow grid). Each week represents 1,000 parsecs of solar travel, which in this plot is assumed to be traversed by the Sun in roughly 4.09 million years. Three of the grid lines are labeled as Bully timestamps '''8200 0000 0000''', '''8280 0000 0000''', and '''8300 0000 0000''', respectively, indicating the estimated polar angle of the Sun at approximately 4.1 million years B.C., 49 million years A.D., and 102 million years A.D.

The cyan lines in the lower half of the image further divide one sector into 10 equal subsectors of 100 parsecs each. The Sun is currently located directly below the Galactic Center, at the 6 o'clock position in Figure 3f, and orbits in a clockwise direction. A red grid line represents the polar angle the Sun had during Bully timestamp 8209 D89D 89D8 (approximately 31,000 B.C.), which is 1,000 parsecs of travel beyond the yellow line representing timestamp 8200 0000 0000. The nine cyan lines to the left of the red line represent the polar angles of the Sun after traveling 1,100 through 1,900 parsecs beyond timestamp 8200 0000 0000.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. 

The table in '''Figure 4b''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. It outlines the specific Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved across this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4b:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is the Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4c:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250-million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4c). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4c''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in Figure 4b states that the galactic week beginning on timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
In Figure 3a and Figure 3e, the Sun is shown to travel less than 50,000 parsecs per galactic year. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar shown in Figure 3f assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per galactic year, introducing a distinct discrepancy in both galactic scale and calculated orbital velocity.

Because the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to complex gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is neither perfectly uniform nor entirely predictable. Consequently, the Sun's true orbital velocity remains a subject of ongoing discovery and refinement. The conjectured values used in Figure 3e and Figure 3f should be viewed as '''practical assumptions''' rather than a reflection of a stable, long-term physical reality; the idealized Bully Calendar is a '''conceptual model''' designed to help visualize the immense scale of the galactic orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4d''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp up to 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | '''Figure 4d''': Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 1 solar radius per Bully timestamp&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 100 parsecs per 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 3px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Sun's Galactocentric orbital distance in parsecs assuming 52,000 parsecs per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps&lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 396,635 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 409,600 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;18.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 416,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 24,789.7 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 25,600.0 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;14.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 26,000.0 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,549.36 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,600.00 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;10.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1,625.00 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 96.8348 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100.0000 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;6.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 101.5625 &lt;/small&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off-Nominal Values

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 49,579 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 51,200 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 52,000 &lt;/small&gt;

|-

| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.597453&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.513043 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.6438562&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.562500 &lt;/small&gt;
| &lt;small&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;0.666224&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 1.586914 &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== The Earth and Moon ==
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep-time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The duration of Earth's sidereal year is '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. While gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets cause this value to vary by 20 to 25 minutes annually, the averaged century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given this relative stability, using a clean divisor of the sidereal year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system offers significant utility. Specifically, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds, meaning Earth's sidereal year—rounded to the nearest second—equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's tropical year ====
Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of seasons between successive vernal equinoxes, spans '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp shorter than the sidereal year, coming in at '''10,329.6 Bully timestamps'''.

==== Earth's Great Year ====
With Earth's sidereal year (&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,330 timestamps and the tropical year (&lt;math&gt;a_{t}&lt;/math&gt;) spanning 10,329.6 timestamps, a full precessional cycle requires a number of years, &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;, where the cumulative annual difference equals exactly one year:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
N &amp;= \frac{1\text{ Bully timestamp}}{P - a_{t}} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{10,330 - 10,329.6} \\
&amp;= \frac{1}{0.4} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Expressing this duration in terms of sidereal years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,329.6 \, P \\
&amp;= 25,824 \, P 
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

Alternatively, expressing the cycle in terms of tropical years yields:

&amp;hairsp;
&lt;math&gt; 
\begin{aligned}
1 \, \text{Great Year} &amp;= N \times 10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= \frac{5}{2} \times  10,330 \, a_{t} \\
&amp;= 25,825 \, a_{t}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;hairsp;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic|Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23, 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp complete approximately three cycles per one Metonic cycle, as illustrated below:

&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f8f9fa; color: inherit; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688; border-radius: 4px; line-height: 1.6; margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
'''July 23 New Moons:'''
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;

* [[Bully Metric Metonic cycle|Learn More About The Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

=== The Bully Timestamp Duration ===
While 3,055 seconds may appear to be an arbitrary choice, the length of a single Bully timestamp is mathematically derived to balance local solar observations with deep-time orbital mechanics.

{{Quote box| align = center| width = 100%| title = Bully Timestamp Duration | text = Justification:
# The Sun orbits approximately one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
# The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's Great Year.
# The Earth–Moon Metonic cycle is synchronized with hexadecimal multiples of the Bully unit.
}}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]], where the plane intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

==== Bullies in the Bully System ====
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in Figure 5a:

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was “sweetheart”. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, “lover”. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align = center | width = full | title = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | text = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== A surrogate for the Sun ===
As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

The path of the node can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4b''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of exactly 52,000 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666224&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs (or 2&lt;sup&gt;15.666040&lt;/sup&gt;) of orbital travel per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 3px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled in parsecs

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B32}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87''}}}} 

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 094B}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5058}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87''}}}}

|- style=&quot;font-size: small; background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;

| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.100 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|820A D4AD 4AD4}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1099.86''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align = center| width = full| title = Bully Timestamp Anchor| text = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed varies throughout the year, moving slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Consequently, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, '''winter''' was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. It took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to '''spring''' being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to '''summer'''. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over '''21,000 years'''.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.2|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from '''spring to summer''' is correlated with a large '''green dot''' and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large '''red dot''' appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from '''summer to autumn''', and a large '''blue dot''', back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from '''winter to spring'''. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,500 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly '''26,000 years''' (1 Great Year ≈ 25,824 sidereal years ≈ 25,825 tropical years).

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | text = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred near the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. All of the Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE, 1998 CE, and 8329 CE, are roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
# Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
}}

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==
Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 6a''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in Figure 6a, these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6a''': Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of Figure 6a, follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret. Ideally, all of the black lines in Figure 6a could be discontinued and replaced by Bully timestamps going forward.

=== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ===

All the timestamps in '''Figure 6b''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 6b''': UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of Figure 6b attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of Figure 6b, breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3,055 seconds TAI after the previous one. However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950s, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic timekeeping (1958 AD – present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

== Bully Timestamp Estimation ==
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 8a: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 8a'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 8b'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|'''Figure 8b''': The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in '''Figure 8c''' contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8c''': Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in '''Figure 8d''' (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8d''': Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 8d) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in '''Figure 8e''' is the same as is shown in Figure 8d, but Figure 8e plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|'''Figure 8e''': A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in '''Figure 8f''' is similar to the table in Figure 8c, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 8c was for large z values, Figure 8f shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 8f''': Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>6qe66kpb3tle17v6regp3fob1js5xhs</sha1>
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  </page>
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    <title>Bully Metric Realized Timestamps</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832471</id>
      <parentid>2832104</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:26:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832471</origin>
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      <text bytes="15340" sha1="elgndjukber6es6k5ngsri1tnimyr44" xml:space="preserve">{| class=table style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
 | {{Original research}}
 | [https://physwiki.eeyabo.net/index.php/Main_Page &lt;small&gt;Development &lt;br/&gt;Area&lt;/small&gt;]
|}

[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt;

There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future.  Each Bully timestamp should be considered &quot;realized&quot; after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt; or better.

=== Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) ===
The table in '''Figure 7a''' (derived from the Wikipedia &quot;[[W:Leap Second|Leap Second]]&quot; article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972.  For each leap second insertion, Figure 7a lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been &quot;realized&quot; immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was &quot;realized&quot; immediately after the leap second insertion).

A few details are worth noting in Figure 7a.  The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ECFB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ED02 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. Notably, Bully timestamps are always realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero.  The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship.  


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 7a''': Announced leap seconds to date
|-
! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
|-
! 1972
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFB E7FB &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB E7FC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB FC4F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC
|-
! 1973
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 24A2 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC
|-
! 1974
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 4CF4 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC
|-
! 1975
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 7547 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC
|-
! 1976
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 9DB6 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC
|-
! 1977
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC C609 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC
|-
! 1978
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC EE5C &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC
|-
! 1979
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFD 16AE &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC
|-
! 1981
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 531C &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC
|-
! 1982
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 7B6F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC
|-
! 1983
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD A3C2 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC
|-
! 1985
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD F484 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC
|-
! 1987
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE 597D &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC
|-
! 1989
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE AA3F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC
|-
! 1990
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE D291 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC
|-
! 1992
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 0EFF &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC
|-
! 1993
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 3752 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC
|-
! 1994
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 5FA5 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC
|-
! 1995
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFF 9C4B &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC
|-
! 1997
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF D8B9 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC
|-
! 1998
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED00 1560 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED00 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC
|-
! 2005
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED01 2FDC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED01 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC
|-
! 2008
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED01 A8F0 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED01 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC
|-
! 2012
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 3604 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC
|-
! 2015
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 AEFC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC
|-
! 2016
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1  || 8209 ED02 EBBF &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC
|}

=== Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) ===
[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6b''': Rubber Seconds]]

Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the &quot;rubber second&quot; (see Figure 6b). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&amp;nbsp;s step (0.05&amp;nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed.

As shown in '''Figure 6b''', for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC &quot;rubber seconds&quot; meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}.

The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&amp;nbsp;s steps were needed (see Figure 6b). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972.

At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC.  By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC.  The following table illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta
|-
! Approximate Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) &lt;br /&gt; Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative &lt;br /&gt; Difference
|-
! 8209 ECF9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . .  8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . .  1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec
|-
! 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . .  1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . .  1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 
1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . .  1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . .  1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.717 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI . . .  1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 3.875 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.975 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA D459 (+429.0 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.080 sec || 4.055 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 4.155 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 4.313 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . .  8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . .  8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . .  1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC
| 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC
| 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec
|}</text>
      <sha1>elgndjukber6es6k5ngsri1tnimyr44</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832472</id>
      <parentid>2832471</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:27:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832472</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15209" sha1="9zldjuqm6s9grdaq5p7taj1rx3xeh8j" xml:space="preserve">[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt;

There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future.  Each Bully timestamp should be considered &quot;realized&quot; after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt; or better.

=== Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) ===
The table in '''Figure 7a''' (derived from the Wikipedia &quot;[[W:Leap Second|Leap Second]]&quot; article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972.  For each leap second insertion, Figure 7a lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been &quot;realized&quot; immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was &quot;realized&quot; immediately after the leap second insertion).

A few details are worth noting in Figure 7a.  The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ECFB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ED02 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. Notably, Bully timestamps are always realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero.  The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship.  


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 7a''': Announced leap seconds to date
|-
! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
|-
! 1972
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFB E7FB &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB E7FC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB FC4F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC
|-
! 1973
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 24A2 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC
|-
! 1974
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 4CF4 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC
|-
! 1975
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 7547 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC
|-
! 1976
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 9DB6 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC
|-
! 1977
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC C609 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC
|-
! 1978
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC EE5C &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC
|-
! 1979
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFD 16AE &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC
|-
! 1981
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 531C &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC
|-
! 1982
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 7B6F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC
|-
! 1983
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD A3C2 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC
|-
! 1985
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD F484 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC
|-
! 1987
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE 597D &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC
|-
! 1989
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE AA3F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC
|-
! 1990
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE D291 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC
|-
! 1992
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 0EFF &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC
|-
! 1993
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 3752 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC
|-
! 1994
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 5FA5 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC
|-
! 1995
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFF 9C4B &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC
|-
! 1997
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF D8B9 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC
|-
! 1998
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED00 1560 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED00 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC
|-
! 2005
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED01 2FDC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED01 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC
|-
! 2008
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED01 A8F0 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED01 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC
|-
! 2012
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 3604 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC
|-
! 2015
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 AEFC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC
|-
! 2016
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1  || 8209 ED02 EBBF &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC
|}

=== Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) ===
[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 6b''': Rubber Seconds]]

Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the &quot;rubber second&quot; (see Figure 6b). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&amp;nbsp;s step (0.05&amp;nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed.

As shown in '''Figure 6b''', for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC &quot;rubber seconds&quot; meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}.

The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&amp;nbsp;s steps were needed (see Figure 6b). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972.

At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC.  By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC.  The table in '''Figure 7b''' illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 7b''': Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta
|-
! Approximate Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) &lt;br /&gt; Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative &lt;br /&gt; Difference
|-
! 8209 ECF9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . .  8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . .  1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec
|-
! 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . .  1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . .  1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 
1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . .  1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . .  1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.717 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI . . .  1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 3.875 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.975 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA D459 (+429.0 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.080 sec || 4.055 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 4.155 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 4.313 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . .  8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . .  8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . .  1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC
| 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC
| 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec
|}</text>
      <sha1>9zldjuqm6s9grdaq5p7taj1rx3xeh8j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832473</id>
      <parentid>2832472</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:30:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832473</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15209" sha1="7pzdlpwupmpwtnl007rltggw38hoc83" xml:space="preserve">[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt;

There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the more than 65 years of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present). Given the availability of atomic clocks, it is anticipated that Bully timestamps will continue to be realized with great regularity for the foreseeable future.  Each Bully timestamp should be considered &quot;realized&quot; after it occurs and is measured using precise clocks with an accuracy of &lt;math&gt;{10}^{-10}&lt;/math&gt; or better.

=== Leap Seconds (1972 - Present) ===
The table in '''Figure 7a''' (derived from the Wikipedia &quot;[[W:Leap Second|Leap Second]]&quot; article), lists all leap second insertions that have occurred since the introduction of leap seconds in 1972.  For each leap second insertion, Figure 7a lists the preceding Bully timestamp (that had been &quot;realized&quot; immediately prior to the leap second insertion), and the subsequent Bully timestamp (that was &quot;realized&quot; immediately after the leap second insertion).

A few details are worth noting in Figure 7a.  The TAI and UTC already differed by 10 seconds at the beginning of 1972 due to rubber seconds ([https://en.m.wikiversity.org/wiki/Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps#Rubber_Seconds_(1958_-_1971) see discussion below]), so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ECFB E7FB was realized, the TAI time was 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI, whereas UTC time was 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC. An additional 27 leap seconds were inserted into UTC during the period between 1972 and 2016, making a total of 37 leap seconds difference, so when Bully Timestamp 8209 ED02 EBC0 was realized, the TAI time was 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI, whereas UTC time was 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC. Notably, Bully timestamps are always realized during TAI times with a seconds value ending in five or zero.  The Bully timestamp and TAI both measure elapsed time as determined by atomic clocks at sea level on Earth, so these systems will always have this simple relationship.  


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 7a''': Announced leap seconds to date
|-
! Year !! 30 Jun !! 31 Dec !! Bully Timestamp !! International Atomic Time (TAI) !! Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
|-
! 1972
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFB E7FB &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB E7FC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB FC4F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFB FC50 || 1972-06-30 23:34:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1972-07-01 00:25:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1972-12-31 23:45:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1973-01-01 00:36:00 TAI || 1972-06-30 23:34:35 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1972-07-01 00:25:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1972-12-31 23:44:54 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1973-01-01 00:35:48 UTC
|-
! 1973
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 24A2 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 24A3 || 1973-12-31 23:57:50 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1974-01-01 00:48:45 TAI || 1973-12-31 23:57:38 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1974-01-01 00:48:32 UTC
|-
! 1974
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 4CF4 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 4CF5 || 1974-12-31 23:19:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1975-01-01 00:10:35 TAI || 1974-12-31 23:19:27 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1975-01-01 00:10:21 UTC
|-
! 1975
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 7547 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 7548 || 1975-12-31 23:32:25 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1976-01-01 00:23:20 TAI || 1975-12-31 23:32:11 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1976-01-01 00:23:05 UTC
|-
! 1976
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC 9DB6 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC 9DB7 || 1976-12-31 23:30:50 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1977-01-01 00:21:45 TAI || 1976-12-31 23:30:35 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1977-01-01 00:21:29 UTC
|-
! 1977
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC C609 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC C60A || 1977-12-31 23:43:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1978-01-01 00:34:30 TAI || 1977-12-31 23:43:19 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1978-01-01 00:34:13 UTC
|-
! 1978
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFC EE5C &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFC EE5D || 1978-12-31 23:56:20 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1979-01-01 00:47:15 TAI || 1978-12-31 23:56:03 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1979-01-01 00:46:57 UTC
|-
! 1979
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFD 16AE &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 16AF || 1979-12-31 23:18:10 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1980-01-01 00:09:05 TAI || 1979-12-31 23:17:52 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1980-01-01 00:08:46 UTC
|-
! 1981
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 531C &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 531D || 1981-06-30 23:19:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1981-07-01 00:09:55 TAI || 1981-06-30 23:18:41 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1981-07-01 00:09:35 UTC
|-
! 1982
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD 7B6F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD 7B70 || 1982-06-30 23:31:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1982-07-01 00:22:40 TAI || 1982-06-30 23:31:25 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1982-07-01 00:22:19 UTC
|-
! 1983
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD A3C2 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD A3C3 || 1983-06-30 23:44:30 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1983-07-01 00:35:25 TAI || 1983-06-30 23:44:09 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1983-07-01 00:35:03 UTC
|-
! 1985
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFD F484 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFD F485 || 1985-06-30 23:55:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1985-07-01 00:46:35 TAI || 1985-06-30 23:55:18 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1985-07-01 00:46:12 UTC
|-
! 1987
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE 597D &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE 597E || 1987-12-31 23:40:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1988-01-01 00:31:30 TAI || 1987-12-31 23:40:12 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1988-01-01 00:31:06 UTC
|-
! 1989
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE AA3F &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE AA40 || 1989-12-31 23:51:45 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1990-01-01 00:42:40 TAI || 1989-12-31 23:51:21 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1990-01-01 00:42:15 UTC
|-
! 1990
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFE D291 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFE D292 || 1990-12-31 23:13:35 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1991-01-01 00:04:30 TAI || 1990-12-31 23:13:10 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1991-01-01 00:04:04 UTC
|-
! 1992
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 0EFF &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 0F00 || 1992-06-30 23:14:25 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1992-07-01 00:05:20 TAI || 1992-06-30 23:13:59 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1992-07-01 00:04:53 UTC
|-
! 1993
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 3752 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 3753 || 1993-06-30 23:27:10 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1993-07-01 00:18:05 TAI || 1993-06-30 23:26:43 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1993-07-01 00:17:37 UTC
|-
! 1994
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF 5FA5 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 5FA6 || 1994-06-30 23:39:55 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1994-07-01 00:30:50 TAI || 1994-06-30 23:39:27 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1994-07-01 00:30:21 UTC
|-
! 1995
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ECFF 9C4B &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF 9C4C || 1995-12-31 23:12:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1996-01-01 00:03:00 TAI || 1995-12-31 23:11:36 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1996-01-01 00:02:30 UTC
|-
! 1997
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ECFF D8B9 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ECFF D8BA || 1997-06-30 23:12:55 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1997-07-01 00:03:50 TAI || 1997-06-30 23:12:25 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1997-07-01 00:03:19 UTC
|-
! 1998
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED00 1560 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED00 1561 || 1998-12-31 23:36:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 1999-01-01 00:26:55 TAI || 1998-12-31 23:35:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 1999-01-01 00:26:23 UTC
|-
! 2005
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED01 2FDC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED01 2FDD || 2005-12-31 23:45:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2006-01-01 00:36:35 TAI || 2005-12-31 23:45:08 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2006-01-01 00:36:02 UTC
|-
! 2008
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 8209 ED01 A8F0 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED01 A8F1 || 2008-12-31 23:18:40 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2009-01-01 00:09:35 TAI || 2008-12-31 23:18:07 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2009-01-01 00:09:01 UTC
|-
! 2012
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 3604 &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 3605 || 2012-06-30 23:45:00 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2012-07-01 00:35:55 TAI || 2012-06-30 23:44:26 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2012-07-01 00:35:20 UTC
|-
! 2015
|bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1 || 0 || 8209 ED02 AEFC &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 AEFD || 2015-06-30 23:32:20 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2015-07-01 00:23:15 TAI || 2015-06-30 23:31:45 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2015-07-01 00:22:39 UTC
|-
! 2016
| 0 ||bgcolor=&quot;lime&quot;| +1  || 8209 ED02 EBBF &lt;br /&gt; 8209 ED02 EBC0 || 2016-12-31 23:41:05 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 2017-01-01 00:32:00 TAI || 2016-12-31 23:40:29 UTC &lt;br /&gt; 2017-01-01 00:31:23 UTC
|}

=== Rubber Seconds (1958 - 1971) ===
[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to rubber seconds.png|frame|center|text-bottom|'''Figure 7b''': Rubber Seconds]]

Prior to 1972, the rate of UTC atomic clocks was offset from a pure atomic time scale by the BIH to remain synchronized with UT2, a practice known as the &quot;rubber second&quot; (see Figure 7b). The rate of UTC was decided at the start of each year. Alongside this shift in rate, an occasional 0.1&amp;nbsp;s step (0.05&amp;nbsp;s before 1963) was also implemented as needed.

As shown in '''Figure 7b''', for 1958-1961, the offset rate was −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.47 seconds per year). This stretching of UTC &quot;rubber seconds&quot; meant that fewer of them would occur during a Bully Timestamp. For example, during the 1958-1961 time period, each Bully timestamp was realized after exactly 3055 seconds TAI, which corresponded to 3054.999955264 seconds UTC. For 1962–63 the offset rate was set to −130 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.41 seconds per year, or 3054.999960285 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and then for 1964–65 the offset rate was returned to −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}}.

The UTC rate of −150 parts per 10{{sup|10}} turned out to be notably inadequate during the 1964-1965 time period, and multiple 0.1&amp;nbsp;s steps were needed (see Figure 7b). Beginning in 1966, the offset rate was set to −300 parts per 10{{sup|10}} (or 0.94 seconds per year, or 3054.99990835 seconds UTC per Bully timestamp), and this continued until the inauguration of Leap Seconds in 1972.

At the beginning of 1958, the TAI and UTC clocks were in sync, with 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI occurring at the same time as 1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC.  By the end of 1972, the UTC clock had been adjusted (using rubber seconds and time steps) by ten leap seconds, so that 1972-01-01 00:00:10.003 TAI occurred at the same time as 1972-01-01 00:00:00.003 UTC.  The table in '''Figure 7c''' illustrates the slow accumulation of leap seconds prior to 1972, resulting in this ten second difference.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 7c''': Rubber Seconds and Accumulative (TAI - UTC) Time Delta
|-
! Approximate Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; Approximate International Atomic Time (TAI) &lt;br /&gt; Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) !! (ΔTAI - ΔUTC) !! Accumulative &lt;br /&gt; Difference
|-
! 8209 ECF9 9F04 (+2820.0 sec) . . .  8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1958-01-01 00:00:00.000 TAI . . .  1960-01-01 00:00:00.943 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1958-01-01 00:00:00.002 UTC . . . 1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.943 sec || 0.943 sec
|-
! 8209 ECF9 EFAA (+1290.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1960-01-01 00:00:00.944 TAI . . .  1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1960-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.474 sec || 1.418 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:01.418 TAI . . . 1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.005 sec || 1.423 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 1819 (+1386.4 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:01.423 TAI . . .  1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.275 sec || 1.698 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:01.698 TAI . . . 1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI &lt;br /&gt; 
1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| -0.050 sec || 1.648 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 2F85 (+406.6 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:01.648 TAI . . .  1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1961-08-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.198 sec || 1.846 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 406C (+621.8 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.5 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1962-01-01 00:00:01.846 TAI . . .  1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1962-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.751 sec || 2.597 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:02.597 TAI . . . 1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 2.697 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 8A54 (+1622.6 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:02.697 TAI . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1963-11-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.069 sec || 2.766 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9111 (+2147.7 sec) . . . 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-01-01 00:00:02.766 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.118 sec || 2.884 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:02.884 TAI . . . 1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 2.984 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA 9B1F (+977.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:02.984 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-04-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.198 sec || 3.182 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:03.182 TAI . . . 1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.282 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA AC06 (+1193.2 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.4 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:03.282 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1964-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 3.440 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:03.440 TAI . . . 1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.540 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA B980 (+2243.5 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.6 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:03.540 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.076 sec || 3.617 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:03.617 TAI . . . 1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.717 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA C005 (+1048.7 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.8 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:03.717 TAI . . .  1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-03-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 3.875 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:03.875 TAI . . . 1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 3.975 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA CD7F (+2098.9 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA D459 (+429.0 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:03.975 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-07-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.080 sec || 4.055 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:04.055 TAI . . . 1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.100 sec || 4.155 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA D459 (+429.1 sec) . . .  8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:04.155 TAI . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1965-09-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 0.158 sec || 4.313 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFA E1D3 (+1479.3 sec) . . .  8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.2 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1966-01-01 00:00:04.313 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1966-01-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| 1.973 sec || 6.286 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:06.286 TAI . . . 1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC
| -0.100 sec || 6.186 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB 35E5 (+2171.1 sec) . . .  8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:06.186 TAI . . .  1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1968-02-01 00:00:00.000 UTC . . . 1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC
| 3.707 sec || 9.892 sec
|-
! 8209 ECFB D3E0 (+809.9 sec) &lt;br /&gt;
1972-01-01 00:00:09.891 TAI . . . 1972-01-01 00:00:09.999 TAI &lt;br /&gt;
1971-12-31 23:59:59.999 UTC
| 0.109 sec || 10.000 sec
|}</text>
      <sha1>7pzdlpwupmpwtnl007rltggw38hoc83</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bully Metric CMB Stabilized Timestamps</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>322129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832478</id>
      <parentid>2719519</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:40:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832478</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4341" sha1="hs6wkwhziff6oyhj9tvhwx6205nzi21" xml:space="preserve">{| class=table style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
 | {{Original research}}
 | [https://physwiki.eeyabo.net/index.php/Main_Page &lt;small&gt;Development &lt;br/&gt;Area&lt;/small&gt;]
|}

[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt;

Time on earth is currently measured using seconds, which are defined within the International System of Units as:

 The duration of 9,192,631,770 ΔνCs (delta nu Cs).

The abbreviation &quot;ΔνCs (delta nu Cs)&quot; represents the period of radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. Bully timestamps are currently defined such that each timestamp is realized exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one, or in other words, a timestamp is realized every 3,055 × 9,192,631,770 ΔνCs (delta nu Cs) = 28,083,490,057,350 ΔνCs (delta nu Cs). These earth-bound definitions for the second and bully timestamp should be sufficient for the foreseeable future; however, if humans were to set up off-earth colonies at some distant time in the future, then it would become advantages to update the bully timestamps with an off-earth definition.

[[Image:Galaxy superclusters and galaxy voids.png|thumb|upright=2|Figure 9a: A map of galaxy voids]]
The image in figure 9a, illustrates the voids and superclusters that exist in the neighborhood of our galaxy, the Milky Way. Voids are particularly galaxy-poor regions of space between filaments, making up the large-scale structure of the universe. The Boötes Void, shown in the upper right of the image, for example, is a roughly spherical region of space in the vicinity of the constellation Boötes. It contains just 60 galaxies, a figure significantly lower than the approximately 2,000 galaxies expected for an area of comparable size. With a radius of 62 megaparsecs (nearly 330 million light-years), it is one of the largest voids in the visible universe, and is often referred to as a &quot;supervoid&quot;.

If a spacecraft with an atomic clock were to exist in an empty region of space, within one of these voids, then that clock, in principle, would be mostly free from gravitational effects and could maintain a constant velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background (CMB).  In particular, a spacecraft at rest with respect to the CMB would potentially remain at rest for an extended period of time.  According to Albert Einstein's theories, '''time dilation''' is the difference in elapsed time as measured by two clocks, either because of a relative velocity between them (special relativity), or a difference in gravitational potential between their locations (general relativity). Theoretically, a clock within a supervoid, at rest with respect to the CMB, should be subject to less time dilation, and hence, measure more elapsed time than clocks which are subjected to gravitational fields and are orbiting galaxies inside of clusters.

In order to synchronize with clocks on Earth, a clock in an empty region of space and at rest with respect to the CMB, would need to adjust for time dilation. This adjustment can be made by multiplying the time period, as measured on Earth, by a &quot;Lorentz factor&quot;. The Earth currently has a Lorentz factor of roughly 1.00000076 with respect to the CMB. As explained previously, Bully timestamps occur on Earth such that a new timestamp is realized every 28,083,490,057,350 ΔνCs (delta nu Cs).  Hence, an atomic clock in a void at rest with the CMB, should register 1.00000076 × 28,083,490,057,350 periods in the time that a similar clock on Earth registers 28,083,490,057,350 periods.

   28,083,490,057,350 ΔνCs (delta nu Cs) on Earth.
 = 28,083,511,400,802 ΔνCs (delta nu Cs) in a supervoid at rest with the CMB.


[[Image:Bully_Metric_Coordinates_Velocity_Relative_to_CMB.svg|thumb|upright=2|Figure 9b: Velocity Relative to CMB notional diagram]]

The Earth orbits the Sun with a speed of roughly 0.000099335 c (99.335 [[Bully_Metric_Length_Apan|Pla]]/[[Bully_Metric_Time_Apan|Zta]]) (29.78 km/s), which is roughly an eighth of the speed at which the Sun orbits the Milky Way, which is 0.000797218 c (797.218 [[Bully_Metric_Length_Apan|Pla]]/[[Bully_Metric_Time_Apan|Zta]]) (239 km/s).</text>
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      <text bytes="5889" sha1="rv0y9lmw7ac3xtkf2jjzapv1plos80u" xml:space="preserve">== Unblock request (with provided reason) ==

{{unblocked|1=''Hello Mr. MathXplore,''

''I hope this finds you well. I'm new to Wikiversity and wish to become a contributor. I was writing a draft of my user page and got impressed to find out that &quot;blocked&quot; and &quot;deleted&quot; as if I was SPAM.'' 

''I'm not a spam, I'm a person; Couldn't you've contacted me before taking such radical actions?''

''Therefore I humbly I ask you to be unblocked; My IP address as given by my notice is {{Redacted}}. My intention was never to &quot;Cross-Wiki advertising&quot; or be opportunistic towards the community; If I did such harm  I wish to understand how, as I understood that an user page is where I should write about myself in order to users know me, or am I mistaken?''

''If I should write about myself in a &quot;Wikipedia&quot; style, please understand that I was developing the text. Yet too soon I got blocked and &quot;killed&quot; without the chance to elaborate my own user page.'' 

''I'm sorry for any inconvenience. Please restore my page.''

''Sincerely,''
˷˷˷˷
''Marcio Hendrik''

''--'' 

''This email was sent by Marciohendrik to MathXplore by the &quot;Email this user&quot; function at Wikiversity. If you reply to this email, your email will be sent directly to the original sender, revealing your email address to them.''

''To manage email preferences for user Marciohendrik, please visit the following URL:''

[[Special:Mute/Marciohendrik|''https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Mute/Marciohendrik'']]|2=Per [[Special:Diff/2722831]], [[Special:Diff/2722836]], please try to contribute to learning by editing related pages e.g., about music. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:39, 22 July 2025 (UTC)}}


[[User:Marciohendrik|Marcio Hendrik]] ([[User talk:Marciohendrik|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marciohendrik|contribs]]) 21:48, 21 July 2025 (UTC)
==Welcome==
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See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:39, 22 July 2025 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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{{Robelbox/close}}

:Hello Mr. MathXplore,
:Thank you for the warm welcome and guidelines. I will follow your suggestions starting from the above, and I will edit pages about music.
:I foresee my contributions as a way to gain experience in artistic research.
:Sincerely,
:Marcio
:[[User:Marciohendrik|Marcio Hendrik]] ([[User talk:Marciohendrik|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marciohendrik|contribs]]) 09:25, 23 July 2025 (UTC)

== Recently created pages ==

Hey Marcio,

I'm sorry that I had to mass delete your recent pages. I'm not sure what you were trying to accomplish with those new creations, but if you want to redirect pages to Wikipedia, the proper way is through the {{tl|Softredirect}} template, as demonstrated here: [[Social self]]. Feel free to re-create your pages with the proper template. Thanks!

—[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:00, 5 July 2026 (UTC)

:Hello Atcovi,
:Yes I was connecting music theory concepts from Wikiversity to Wikipedia. No worries. I will check the template, and I will do it again in another opportunity.
:Regards Marcio [[User:Marciohendrik|Marcio Hendrik]] ([[User talk:Marciohendrik|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marciohendrik|contribs]]) 18:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC)
:Hello Atcovi, 
:I know you're sorry, and since you mass deleted all the topics, coulld you replace their respective links? I'm having trouble in redoing as the presented way.
:Thanks, 
:Marcio [[User:Marciohendrik|Marcio Hendrik]] ([[User talk:Marciohendrik|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marciohendrik|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/ERG theory and motivation</title>
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{{title|ERG Theory and Motivation&lt;br&gt;Understanding Existence, Relatedness, and Growth Needs}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

A new employee enters a workplace excited to grow professionally. Over time, they realise there are limited opportunities for development. Their motivation drops, and they begin focusing only on job security and material rewards. ERG Theory explains this shift, because when growth needs are blocked, people tend to regress to lower level needs such as existence or relatedness (Shikalepo, 2020) See Figure 1

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Tired person sitting in chair with hands covering face.jpg|none|thumb|221x221px|Figure 1]]
ERG Theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer between 1961 and 1978 as a more flexible alternative to Maslow's hierarchy (Bateman &amp; Snell, 2013). It condenses human needs into three categories, which are existence, relatedness and growth.

Key points:
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

- ERG is widely used to understand workplace motivation (Caulton, 2012)

- It can explain workplace issues, relationship patterns, and personal development choices (Caulton, 2012)

- ERG allows movement both upward (progression) and downward (regression) (Shikalepo, 2020)

- Multiple needs can motivate behaviour at the same time (Shikalepo, 2020

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

- What are existence, relatedness, and growth needs?

 - How does ERG Theory explain changes in motivation?

- What evidence supports progression and regression?

- How can ERG Theory be applied in workplaces, education, and personal development?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are ERG needs?==
The ERG Theory groups consist of existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs relate to basic material and physiological requirements, while relatedness needs involve meaningful relationships and connections with others. Growth needs focus on personal development, achievement, and reaching one's full potential.

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

- ERG is an outgrowth of Maslow's hierarchy (Caulton, 2012)

- It simplifies human needs into 3 categories instead of 5

- It is used to predict workplace behaviour, relationship dynamics, and personal development (Caulton, 2012)

- See Table 1

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1 {{ic|Add table caption}}
!Need Category
!Description
!Examples
|-
|Existence
|Basic survival and security needs including physiological needs and safety 
|Food, shelter, job security, physical safety
|-
|Relatedness
|Social and interpersonal needs involving connection, belonging and relationships
|Friendships, teamwork, recognition, social support
|-
|Growth
|Personal development needs focused on learning, competence, and self-actualisation
|Skill development, creaivity, autonomy, achievement
|}

== Existence Needs ==
Existence needs include physiological and safety-related requirements such as food, shelter, job security, and safe working conditions (Bateman &amp; Snell, 2013). These needs are essential for an individual's basic wellbeing and provide a sense of stability and security in both their personal and professional lives. When these needs are adequately met, individuals ,may be more able to focus on developing relationships with others and pursuing personal and professional growth.

- Basic survival needs

- Strongly influence workplace motivation when job security or income is uncertain

- Students in healthcare education reported strong existence motivation (Wang et al., 2021)

- Many students were motivated because ultrasound skills were required for future work (Wang et al., 2021)

== Relatedness Needs ==
Relatedness needs involve interpersonal relationships, social connect, recognition, and feeling safe around others (Bateman &amp; Snell, 2013).

- These needs relate to belonging and interpersonal safety

- Cultural research shows motivational presences differ across gender and personality types (Song, Wang &amp; Wei, 2007)

- No correlation was found between gender and personality type in motivation (Song, Wang &amp; Wei, 2007)
[[File:Noun-community-6110484-0080FE.svg|thumb]]
- Relatedness needs were less dominant than existence and growth needs in student motivation (Wang et al., 2021) 

== Growth Needs ==
Growth needs include personal development, self‑esteem through achievement, and self‑actualisation (Bateman &amp; Snell, 2013).

- Growth needs motivate long term development

- Higher level needs can motivate even when lower level needs are not fully satisfied (Malota, 2017)

- Managers were motivated to mentor due to personal development and relationships, not financial rewards (Malota, 2017)

- Students mentioned growth motivation 40.7% more than relatedness motivation (Wang et al., 2021)

- Growth motivation was linked to improving diagnostic skills and developing professional abilities (Wang et al., 2021)

== Progression and Regression ==
ERG Theory proposes two key processes:

==== Satisfaction - Progression ====
- When lower level needs are satisfied, individuals move toward growth needs

- Higher level needs can motivate when lower level needs are not met (Malota, 2017)

==== Frustration - Regression ====
When higher level needs are blocked or cannot be fulfilled, individuals may return to lower level needs as a way of maintaining motivation and satisfaction (Shikalepo, 2020). This means that motivation is not always a straightforward progression from lower to higher needs, as individuals may move between different needs depending on their circumstance. For example, an employee who is unable to grow professionally or access opportunities for career development may instead place greater importance on material rewards, such as increased pay or bonuses, or seek stronger social connections and support within the workplace (Shikalepo, 2020).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Case Study: Regression in the Workplace  

A nurse begins a new role motivated by growth needs such as developing advanced clinical skills. When opportunities for training are removed, her motivation declines. She shifts focus to job security and stable income. This is a regression from growth to existence needs.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Nurse administering medicine using a spoon in a healthcare setting during the day.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 2]]

== Applying ERG Theory ==
ERG Theory is widely used to understand workplace motivation, morale and productivity (Caulton, 2012).

- ERG helps managers tailor motivation strategies to individual needs (Mansaray, 2019).

- Different employees respond to different needs (existence, relatedness, growth)

- ERG is useful for analysing student motivation in healthcare education (Wang et al., 2021)

- Motivational preferences vary across cultures, genders, and personality types (Song, Wang &amp; Wei, 2007) 

;Quizzes
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{ERG Theory proposes that individuals must satisfy existence needs before they can pursue relatedness or growth needs.:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{According to ERG Theory, multiple needs can be active and influence behaviour at the same time:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
ERG Theory provides a flexible and realistic explanation of human motivation by proposing that behaviour is influenced by three core needs, existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs involve basic material and safety requirements, relatedness needs involve meaningful relationships, and growth needs involve personal development and achievement (Bateman &amp; Snell, 2013). Together, these needs help explain why individuals may be motivated by different factors depending on their circumstances.

A key strength of ERG Theory is that motivation does not follow a fixed or linear progression. Individuals can pursue multiple needs at the same time, and when higher level needs sjuch as growth are blocked, they can redirect their motivation towards lower level needs (Shikalepo, 2020). This helps explain changes in motivation that may not be accounted for by theories that view needs as only hierarchical.

Research and applications of ERG Theory demonstrate its usefulness for understanding motivation across different contexts, particularly in workplaces and educational settings. The key takeaway is that understanding motivation requires recognising that individuals have different needs that can change over time. Psychological science, through ERG Theory, therefore provides a useful framework for understanding why people behave differently, what sustains their motivation, and how environments can be designed to better support security, social connection, and personal growth.

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/ERG theory|ERG theory]] (Book chapter, 2024)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bateman T. S. and Snell S. A. (2013) MANAGEMENT: Leading &amp; Collaborating in a Competitive World             Tenth edition. Published by McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Caulton, J. R. (2012). The development and use of the theory of ERG: A literature review. ''Emerging Leadership Journeys'', ''5''(1), 2-8.

Mansaray, H. E. (2019). The role of human resource management in employee motivation and performance—An overview. ''Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 2''(3), 183–194. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v2i3.405&lt;/nowiki&gt; 

Małota, W. (2017). Motivational factors to be a mentor in formal mentoring in organisations. The role of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the propensity to mentor. ''Central European Management Journal'', ''25''(4), 119-143.

Shikalepo, E. E. (2020). The role of motivational theories in shaping teacher motivation and performance: A review of related literature. ''International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 4''(4), 64–76. 

Wang, T. C., Chen, W. T., Kang, Y. N., Lin, C. W., Cheng, C. Y., Suk, F. M., Chen, H. Y., Hsu, C. W., Fong, T. H., &amp; Huang, W. C. (2021). Why do pre-clinical medical students learn ultrasound? Exploring learning motivation through ERG theory. ''BMC Medical Education, 21'', 438. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02869-4&lt;/nowiki&gt;

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Love styles and relationship satisfaction</title>
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      <text bytes="46947" sha1="nr2ngesmcemvvxi8pb9qj4g0ele3rx8" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Love styles and relationship satisfaction:&lt;br&gt;How do love styles affect compatibility and long-term relationship outcomes?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{robelbox|theme=5|title=Imagine this ...}}
[[File:Ayşegül Ferhat Kurtoğlu.JPG|thumb|150px|Figure 1. Happily Married Couple.]]

You meet someone new, and the chemistry is instant. The attraction is intense, and every glance feels electric. You spend hours talking, your heart races when your phone buzzes, and you begin to imagine a future together. Months later, the honeymoon glow begins to shift. Your partner craves constant reassurance, needing to know where you are and who you’re with. Or perhaps the opposite happens, your partner seems fun and playful in the short term, but avoids serious conversations about commitment or the future. The question arises: are your styles of loving compatible, or are you headed for conflict?&quot;

Fast forward several years. You and your partner are now married. Bills arrive, careers demand attention, and family responsibilities grow. For some couples, passion deepens into companionship, creating a sense of safety and stability. For others, early excitement fades into frustration when differences in love styles resurface: one partner prioritises passion while the other values practicality, and one seeks constant closeness while the other desires independence. The way partners express and interpret love, through passion, playfulness, friendship, possessiveness, pragmatism, or selfless giving, begins to shape not only daily satisfaction but also long-term outcomes such as trust, stability, and resilience against conflict.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic interactions are fundamental to human existence. They influence emotional well-being, physical health, social functioning, and overall life satisfaction. Relationship satisfaction, the subjective assessment of the quality, contentment, and stability of a romantic partnership, predicts numerous subsequent outcomes: mental health, work performance, social support, and even longevity. However, not all partnerships produce the same levels of fulfilment. The study of [[w:Love_styles|love styles]] provides valuable insight into why certain relationships flourish while others decline, since it examines the consistent ways individuals perceive, express, and prioritise love in romantic settings.

This chapter offers a comprehensive, pragmatic, and research-based analysis of love styles and their correlation with relationship pleasure. This chapter looks at theoretical frameworks (Lee’s six-style typology and Sternberg’s triangular model), incorporates attachment and cultural viewpoints, examines empirical literature (cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic studies), offers six comprehensive, research-based case studies, and concludes with specific, methodical strategies for couples to enhance satisfaction.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Focus questions

* What are the major love styles, and how do they differ in motivations, behaviours, and outcomes?
* How do attachment patterns, communication, culture, gender, and life stage moderate the effect of love styles on satisfaction?
* What does the research (cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic) reveal about which styles predict satisfaction and when?
* How can couples and practitioners use this knowledge to increase relationship satisfaction?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Theory: Models of love and style descriptions ==
[[File:Colour Wheel Theory of Love.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' John Alan Lee's Colour Wheel Theory.|358x358px]]

{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== Lee’s six love styles ===
John Alan Lee (1973) proposed six broad styles of love that capture distinct motivations and behavioural patterns. These have been widely used{{f}} to study romantic dynamics:

* '''Eros'''—passionate, romantic, and aesthetic love. Eros prioritises intense emotional connection and sexual/physical attraction. Partners seek idealised closeness and frequent affectionate contact. Eros is experienced as ardent desire and deep longing for unity with a beloved.
* '''Ludus'''—playful, game-like love. Ludic lovers prioritise enjoyment, novelty, and sometimes multiple partners; they treat romance as recreation rather than a long-term commitment. Ludus is associated with flirtation, teasing, and emotional distancing when stakes rise.
* '''Storge'''—companionate, friendship-based love. Storge emerges from deep friendship and mutual interests; it’s slow to develop and emphasises long-term companionship, trust, and shared life. Storge is reliably linked to stable, enduring relationships.
* '''Mania'''—obsessive, possessive love. Manic love contains powerful dependency, insecurity, jealousy, and fears of abandonment. Mania produces emotional highs and lows and can be highly distressing for both partners.
* '''Pragma'''—practical, pragmatic love. Pragmatic lovers pursue compatibility and social fit: shared values, finances, family plans, or social status. Pragmatic approaches are common where marriage is embedded in family and societal expectations.
* '''Agape'''—altruistic, selfless love. Agape is unconditional, kind, and giving. Agapic partners put the welfare of their beloved first; this can foster stability but, if unbalanced, may lead to caregiver burnout.

Lee's model is significant, as it breaks down motivation and behaviour (individual desires and corresponding actions). It suggests that intimacy- and care-orientated styles (Eros, Storge, and Agape) are typically associated with more happiness, while play- or instability-orientated styles (Ludus and Mania) frequently indicate difficulties, unless the environment and relationship expectations align with those styles.{{f}}

=== Attachment theory: Background and integration ===
Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969; Ainsworth, 1978) states that early caregiving experiences establish internal working models that influence adults' pursuit of intimacy and emotional regulation. Adult attachment is generally divided into secure, anxious, and avoidant patterns. Secure individuals are at ease with connection and independence; anxious individuals fear abandonment and require constant reassurance; avoidant individuals minimise closeness and maintain distance{{f}}.

[[File:Adult attachment patterns.svg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Adult attachment patterns. '''Avoidant''' people equal intimacy with loss of independence &amp; control. Constantly try to avoid closeness. '''Anxious''' people are constantly involved with intimacy and their partners willingness to love them back.]]

Attachment influences love styles. Secure attachment facilitates the adaptive manifestations of Eros, Storge, and Agape. Anxious attachment correlates with mania-like activities, while avoidant attachment exhibits characteristics akin to Ludus, including emotional detachment and reluctance to commit{{f}}. In the presence of attachment insecurity, even &quot;adaptive&quot; styles can transform into maladaptive ones (e.g., anxious-Eros may become attached; avoidant-Storge may become aloof){{f}}. Research indicates that attachment influences the relationship between love types and satisfaction: secure attachment enhances favourable outcomes, while insecure attachment heightens risks (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).

=== Evolutionary and psychological accounts ===
Evolutionary frameworks identify love styles as unique mating strategies: Eros fosters short-term, passionate mating and the formation of pair bonds; Pragma endorses partner selection based on long-term resource and compatibility factors; and Agape encourages collaborative parenting{{f}}. Psychological frameworks, such as self-determination theory (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000), emphasise the significance of need fulfilment: relationship styles that promote relatedness, autonomy, and competence (e.g., Storge, Agape) are indicative of well-being fulfilment. Neurobiological studies demonstrate that passionate love stimulates dopaminergic reward pathways, resulting in heightened arousal, whereas companionate love activates oxytocin-mediated affiliative systems, underscoring differing subjective experiences and implications for longevity (Shih, Kuo, Wu, Chao, Huang, &amp; Huang, 2022).

=== Cultural and life-stage context ===
Cultural influences and life stages profoundly impact the adaptability of diverse styles. Collectivist societies, which emphasise familial alignment and societal coherence, generally endorse Pragma and Storge{{f}}. Individualistic societies emphasise Eros and romantic independence{{f}}. Eros dominates in early adult pair-bonding, whereas Storge and Pragma become more prominent in midlife and parenthood, as stability and shared objectives grow in importance (Fourmanov, 2021; Netoeet al., 2000).

== Empirical evidence on love styles and relationship satisfaction ==
Love styles profoundly influence the quality, stability, and progression of romantic relationships. Studies demonstrate that certain approaches are reliably linked to increased satisfaction, while others may provide difficulties until mitigated by attachment security, effective communication, or cultural influences. This section synthesises cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic evidence to demonstrate the impact of each style on relationship satisfaction.

=== Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence ===
Cross-sectional research offers insights into the correlations between love styles and relationship pleasure. Numerous studies indicate that Eros, Storge, and Agape have a positive correlation with satisfaction levels (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1986; Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002). Eros indicates enhanced sexual and emotional intimacy, whereas Storge and Agape foster consistent support and companionship (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

Ludus and Mania frequently have negative relationships with overall contentment. The avoidance of commitment by Ludus partners frustrates those seeking intimacy, while Mania's dependency and jealousy induce relational stress (Brunell &amp; Buelow, 2015; Hendrick et al., 1988). Pragma yields different outcomes: alignment of partner objectives (shared values, money, familial aspirations) forecasts contentment, especially in collectivist societies; conversely, when goals don't align between partners, it can result in emotionally detached relationships (Neto, 2012).

Longitudinal studies demonstrate the impact of love styles on satisfaction over time. Eros forecasts elevated initial satisfaction but necessitates the incorporation of intimacy and commitment for stability; couples with high Eros who cultivate Storge behaviours preserve satisfaction (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1986). Storge and Agape successfully anticipate lasting satisfaction over years and decades, as friendship and caregiving minimise external pressures (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006). In contrast, couples characterised by Ludus and Mania exhibit increased variability and a heightened risk of breakdown; nevertheless, treatments like communication training can enhance outcomes (Johnson, 2019; Jones &amp; Lopez, 2019).

Meta-analytic syntheses highlight effect sizes. Aggregated findings reveal moderate positive correlations between Eros, Storge, and Agape with contentment (r = .25–.40) and slight negative correlations for Ludus and Mania (r = −.10 to −.25) (Neto, 2012). Contextual factors, such as cultural orientation (individualist versus collectivist) and attachment security, elucidate certain discrepancies in these findings.

=== Mechanisms: How styles influence satisfaction ===
Research identifies several pathways through which love styles affect satisfaction:

* '''Attachment Security:''' Secure attachment amplifies positive effects of Eros, Storge, and Agape and mitigates negative effects of Mania and Ludus. Anxious or avoidant attachment exacerbates conflict and dissatisfaction (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).
* '''Communication:''' Effective disclosure, active listening, and conflict resolution mediate style effects. Couples with poor communication experience styles clash more intensely {{g}} (Van Zutphen, 2016){{ic|This is a book review rather than a peer-reviewed source. It doesn't mention love styles.}}.
* '''Perceived Equity:''' Excessive selflessness (Agape) without reciprocity reduces satisfaction. Balanced exchanges protect long-term relationship quality (Balzen et al., 2021).
* '''Cultural and Life-Stage Factors:''' Cultural expectations influence which styles are adaptive. Pragma is more predictive of satisfaction in collectivist or arranged-union contexts, while Eros is more predictive in individualist, early adult relationships (Neto, 2012). Life-stage transitions, such as parenthood or career changes, further shape satisfaction trajectories.

=== Effects by love style ===
* '''Eros:''' Predicts high initial satisfaction, sexual fulfilment, and emotional intimacy but requires the integration of Storge or Agape behaviours for long-term stability (Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002).
* '''Ludus:''' Enhances excitement in casual contexts but typically reduces satisfaction in committed relationships unless both partners share playful expectations (Balzen et al., 2021).
* '''Storge:''' Promotes steady companionship, trust, and enduring satisfaction; may lack excitement without complementary passion (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006; Neto, 2012).
* '''Mania:''' Associated with emotional highs and lows, conflict, and lower satisfaction; moderated by secure attachment and communication interventions (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).
* '''Pragma:''' High satisfaction when goals align; emotional distance occurs if practical considerations dominate (Neto, 2012).
* '''Agape:''' Strong predictor of stable, long-term satisfaction due to generosity and caregiving; over-reliance can cause perceived inequity (Balzen et al., 2021).

=== Style similarity and interaction effects ===
Couples exhibiting corresponding dominant styles (e.g., Eros–Eros, Storge–Storge) typically report greater happiness than dissimilar couples (Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002). Moreover, hybridisation, in which partners cultivate complementary habits (e.g., Eros partners engaging in pragmatic planning), enhances happiness trajectories (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

Evidence indicates that love styles directly affect relationship pleasure; however, their impact is contingent upon attachment, communication, equity, culture, and life stage. Comprehending these characteristics enables couples and practitioners to customise interventions for enhanced relationship outcomes.

== Integration: A conceptual model of love styles and relationship satisfaction ==
Recognising the interactions between love styles and other relational characteristics is crucial for anticipating relationship satisfaction and informing interventions. A conceptual model can combine individual predispositions, relational dynamics, and contextual factors to provide pathways to fulfilment, stability, and enduring success.

=== Primary influence: Individual love style ===
The principal factor in the {{what}} model is the individual's predominant love style, which embodies both motivation and traditional behavioural habits. Each style communicates unique relational objectives and emotional requirements:

* Eros: seeks profound desire, sexual and emotional intimacy, and an idealised bond.
* Ludus: Emphasises enjoyment, innovation, and minimal-commitment engagements.
* Storge: Prioritises companionship, trust, and communal life practices.
* Mania: Defined by reliance, jealousy, and fear of abandonment.
* Pragma: Emphasises pragmatic compatibility, common values, and social congruence.
* Agape: Signifies unconditional affection, altruism, and magnanimity towards the relationship.

These styles provide a '''baseline motivation''' that shapes perceptions, behaviours, and emotional reactions in a relationship. Importantly, they are not fixed; individuals can learn complementary behaviours and form hybrid styles that balance passion, stability, and practicality (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

=== Moderators: Factors that influence how styles affect satisfaction ===
Moderators are variables that alter the intensity or orientation of the correlation between love style and fulfilment. Principal moderators comprise:

* Attachment Security: Individuals with secure attachments express and respond to love more effectively, hence increasing contentment. Insecure attachment (anxious or avoidant) exacerbates the difficulties associated with Mania and Ludus styles (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).
* Cultural Norms: Collectivist cultures prioritise Pragma and Storge to match with familial and societal standards, while individualist cultures highlight Eros and personal-choice romantic love (Neto, 2012).
* Gender Norms: Societal expectations of gender roles can dictate the expression and perception of love styles, affecting satisfaction trends.
* Relationship Phase: Early-stage partnerships may thrive on Eros intensity; however, the midlife and parental stages necessitate greater Storge and Pragma behaviours to provide stability.

=== Mediators: Mechanisms linking love styles to satisfaction ===
'''Mediators''' explain how love styles translate into satisfaction. Key processes include:

* '''Communication Quality:''' Effective disclosure, active listening, and problem-solving mediate the impact of style mismatches. Poor communication can exacerbate conflict in high-risk pairings, such as Mania–Ludus couples (Van Zutphen, 2016).
* '''Perceived Equity:''' Balanced exchanges of care and effort prevent dissatisfaction. Excessive selflessness without reciprocity (as in Agape) can lead to perceived inequity and burnout (Balzen et al., 2021).
* '''Stress and Coping:''' Couples who manage external stress effectively maintain satisfaction even when styles initially conflict. Stress regulation strategies, including shared problem-solving and emotional support, buffer the negative impact of incompatible styles.{{f}}

=== Outcomes: Predicting satisfaction and stability ===
The {{what}} model predicts outcomes that result from the interaction of love styles, moderators, and mediators:

* '''Relationship satisfaction:''' Overall subjective evaluation of closeness, fulfilment, and emotional quality.
* '''Relationship stability:''' Continuity of the partnership over time, influenced by compatibility, hybrid behaviours, and adaptive negotiation.
* '''Conflict frequency and intensity:''' How often disagreements occur and their severity. Effective mediation and communication reduce escalation.
* '''Risk of dissolution:''' Likelihood of separation, influenced by maladaptive styles, unresolved conflicts, and misalignment of goals or expectations.{{f}}

=== Practical implications and actionable strategies ===
The {{what}} conceptual model identifies several actionable strategies for couples and practitioners:

* '''Communication training:''' Strengthen dialogue and active listening skills to mediate mismatched styles.
* '''Attachment interventions:''' Emotionally focused therapy and integrated behavioural couple therapy can improve regulation in anxious or avoidant partners.
* '''Hybrid style development:''' Encourage partners to adopt complementary behaviours (e.g., an Eros partner practicing Pragma planning or a Pragma partner engaging in spontaneous romantic gestures).
* '''Expectation negotiation:''' Explicitly discuss life goals, household responsibilities, and intimacy needs to align partner expectations.
* '''Cultural adaptation:''' For cross-cultural couples, negotiate traditions, family involvement, and norms to prevent misunderstandings and conflict.{{f}}

This {{what}} conceptual model emphasises that relationship satisfaction arises from a dynamic interplay of love styles, relational processes, and contextual factors. While individual styles provide a baseline tendency, satisfaction depends on how effectively couples manage moderators (attachment, culture, gender, life stage) and engage mediators (communication, equity, stress coping). Hybrid behaviours, learning complementary strategies, and structured interventions create tangible pathways to long-term relational fulfilment.{{f}}

== Quiz ==

=== Love styles and Relationship satisfaction ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which love style is characterised by practical decision-making in choosing a partner?}
- Mania
- Eros
+ Pragma
||'''Correct!''' Pragma is a practical love style focused on compatibility and logical choice.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Try again — think about which love style is driven by logic over passion.||

{Which two love styles are most strongly linked to higher relationship satisfaction in research?}
- Ludus &amp; Mania
+ Eros &amp; Storge
- Pragma &amp; Agape
||'''Correct!''' Research often links Eros (passionate) and Storge (friendship-based) to greater satisfaction.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for styles that emphasise intimacy, trust, and strong connection.||

{True or False: Attachment style has little to no impact on the relationship between love style and satisfaction.}
- True
+ False
||'''Correct!''' Attachment style plays a significant role in how love styles influence satisfaction.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Attachment style is a major factor in relationship outcomes.||

{Scenario: Sam enjoys playful dating, avoids serious talks about the future, and is dating Pat, who wants deep commitment and emotional closeness. Which love style best describes Sam?}
+ Ludus
- Eros
- Storge
||'''Correct!''' Sam’s behaviour reflects Ludus — a game-playing approach to love.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Think about which style prioritises fun over commitment.||

{Scenario: Taylor and Morgan have been together for 10 years. They describe each other as best friends and enjoy spending quiet evenings together. Which love style best describes their relationship?}
- Mania
+ Storge
- Pragma
||'''Correct!''' Storge is friendship-based love, often found in long-term stable relationships.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for a style that grows from companionship and trust.||

&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Case studies ==
Below are six extended, realistic, research-informed cases. These are illustrative composites grounded in the empirical patterns described above. Each case includes context, typical behaviours, struggles, therapeutic or adaptive steps taken, and outcome indicators.

=== Case 1: Eros–Eros (young adult couple) ===
Alex (22, undergraduate) and Jordan (23, postgraduate student) both exhibit elevated Eros inclinations. They encountered each other during laboratory work and swiftly formed an immense attraction. Their days comprised prolonged, intimate discussions, regular affectionate physical interactions, and impromptu romantic endeavours (short excursions, surprise dinners). Initial relationship satisfaction was elevated; both parties indicated substantial sexual and emotional gratification.

Challenges: elevated academic stress and scheduling constraints provoked conflict. Elevated emotional sensitivity amplified minor offences. Periodically, one another's demands, such as Alex's desire for daily intimacy and Jordan's need for focused study time, overwhelmed both partners.

The couple implemented weekly &quot;relationship planning&quot; meetings, used brief, pre-established signals to request study time (mitigating feelings of rejection), and arranged one low-pressure date each week. Alex focused on enduring separations, whereas Jordan engaged in more spontaneous minor gestures, such as texts and brief visits.

Result: after six months, Dyadic Adjustment Scale scores remained elevated; frequency of conflict diminished. This scenario demonstrates that Eros love facilitates initial gratification but requires deliberate coordination and the incorporation of Storge-style procedures to maintain enduring satisfaction.

(References: Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002; Spanier, 1976)

=== Case 2: Storge–Agape (long-term marriage) ===
Emma (45) and Paul (47) initially met as neighbours but gradually evolved into life partners, with friendship serving as the foundation. Both embody Storge and Agape: consistent mutual care, systematic problem-solving, and altruistic caregiving amid illness or adversity. Throughout parenthood and professional transitions, they stressed the importance of relationship cooperation.

Challenges: midlife caregiving and professional obligations diminished time for each other; little grievances collected due to unexpressed expectations regarding domestic responsibilities.

Adaptive measures: they implemented weekly &quot;solidarity sessions&quot; to redistribute tasks, convey gratitude, and recognise minor opportunities for reciprocity. They further embarked on an annual &quot;relationship retreat&quot; weekend to rekindle their connection.

Their longitudinal measures indicate sustained high levels of satisfaction and resilience in the face of stressors. This scenario illustrates how Storge and Agape facilitate enduring satisfaction through consistent, low-intensity pleasant encounters.

(References: Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006; Balzen et al., 2021).

=== Case 3: Mania–Ludus (high-risk, therapeutic case) ===
Rachel (26, marketing) exhibits mania, behaviour characterised by frequent reassurance-seeking, jealousy, and obsessive obsession. Mark (28, software engineer) exhibits Ludus: he revels in flirting and casual encounters with minimal commitment. The initial phases of the partnership were characterised by tumultuous disputes, succeeded by emotional seclusion.

Challenges: Rachel interpreted Mark's taunting as neglect; Mark viewed Rachel's demands as domineering. Conflict cycles entail escalation through blaming followed by disengagement.

Adaptive measures: the couple participated in 12 sessions of integrative behavioural couple therapy, emphasising boundary establishment, specific expressions of wants (I-statements), and organised &quot;attachment work&quot; to alleviate anxiety. Mark engaged in consistent check-ins; Rachel cultivated self-soothing techniques and diminished monitoring habits.

Result: a reduction in dispute frequency and an enhancement in reported satisfaction over a six-month period. The case underscores the necessity for tailored therapy in high-risk couples by emphasising attachment control and behavioural agreements.

(References: Johnson, 2019; Jones &amp; Lopez, 2019).

=== Case 4: Pragma–Pragma (cultural match, mid-adulthood) ===
Priya (30, a civil engineer) and Daniel (32, a finance analyst) originate from societies that prioritise familial expectations. Their relationship commenced with candid talks regarding career, finances, and family planning. They agree on priorities, selected living arrangements, and long-term objectives.

Challenges: intermittent discrepancies in social expectations (Priya is more family-orientated; Daniel is more focused on career networking).

Adaptive measures: organised alternate family/network gatherings, collaborative financial planning sessions, and established decision-making protocols.

Result: Evaluation of Relationship Scale scores reflect elevated satisfaction levels. This instance exemplifies the efficacy of Pragma when couples' life aspirations are congruent, particularly within collectivist cultural frameworks.

(Neto, 2012; Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1990).

=== Case 5: Hybrid Eros–Pragma (mixed priorities) ===
Olivia, a 27-year-old designer, prioritises spontaneity and emotion (Eros). Sam (29, urban planner) emphasises organisation and strategic foresight (Pragma). In the initial stages of their relationship, the couple encountered discord: Olivia desired spontaneous excursions, while Sam preferred to establish financial schedules and residential plans.

Adaptive measures: they established &quot;romance windows&quot;, scheduled yet emotionally receptive surprise events—and &quot;planning windows&quot;—sessions dedicated to realistic discussions. Each spouse contributed: Sam consented to organise a monthly surprise, while Olivia engaged in budget and house planning.

The pair indicated a 20% enhancement in Couples Satisfaction Index scores after one year. This case demonstrates that hybrid styles can be mutually reinforcing when spouses negotiate agreeable routines.

(Funk &amp; Rogge, 2007; Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

=== Case 6: Cross-cultural Eros–Pragma (negotiation of expectations) ===
Olivia, a 27-year-old designer, prioritises spontaneity and emotion (Eros). Sam (29, urban planner) emphasises organisation and strategic foresight (Pragma). In the initial stages of their relationship, the couple encountered discord: Olivia desired spontaneous excursions, while Sam preferred to establish financial schedules and residential plans.

Adaptive measures: they established &quot;romance windows&quot;, scheduled yet emotionally receptive surprise events—and &quot;planning windows&quot;—sessions dedicated to realistic discussions. Each spouse contributed: Sam consented to organise a monthly surprise, while Olivia engaged in budget and house planning.

The pair indicated a 20% enhancement in Couples Satisfaction Index scores after one year. This case demonstrates that hybrid styles can be mutually reinforcing when spouses negotiate agreeable routines.

(Neto &amp; Pinto, 2015; Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).

== Quiz ==

=== Case studies: Love styles and relationship satisfaction ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Which love style pairing was characterised by high initial satisfaction but required deliberate coordination and planning to sustain long-term stability?}  
- Storge–Agape (Emma and Paul)  
- Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
+ Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
- Pragma–Pragma (Priya and Daniel)  
||'''Correct!''' The Eros–Eros couple (Alex &amp; Jordan) had strong passion at the start but needed planning meetings and boundaries to sustain satisfaction.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Think of the pair whose intensity created both passion and challenges in balancing study and intimacy.||  

{Which couple used “solidarity sessions” and annual retreats to maintain balance during midlife challenges?}  
+ Storge–Agape (Emma and Paul)  
- Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
- Pragma–Pragma (Priya and Daniel)  
- Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
||'''Correct!''' Emma &amp; Paul maintained satisfaction through structured solidarity sessions and retreats.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for the couple who relied on friendship and caregiving styles.||  

{Which pairing required structured therapy sessions to address cycles of jealousy and disengagement?}  
- Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
+ Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
- Hybrid Eros–Pragma (Olivia and Sam)  
- Storge–Agape (Emma and Paul)  
||'''Correct!''' Rachel &amp; Mark needed therapy to regulate anxiety and set boundaries due to Mania–Ludus conflict.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Consider the high-risk pairing with jealousy and game-playing.||  

{Which love style combination demonstrated particularly high satisfaction in a collectivist cultural context?}  
- Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
- Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
+ Pragma–Pragma (Priya and Daniel)  
- Agape–Storge (Emma and Paul)  
||'''Correct!''' Priya &amp; Daniel matched well because their pragmatic style fit cultural and family expectations.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for the couple whose planning and family alignment supported stability.||  

{In this case, which strategy improved satisfaction?}  
- Avoiding conflict altogether  
+ Scheduling both “romance windows” and “planning windows”  
- Reducing all spontaneity  
- Only focusing on financial planning  
||'''Correct!''' Olivia &amp; Sam used “romance windows” for passion and “planning windows” for structure to balance Eros and Pragma.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Think about how they blended passion and planning instead of choosing one over the other.||  

{What was the key adaptation?}  
- Refusing cultural negotiation  
+ Balancing romantic spontaneity with pragmatic planning in different cultural contexts  
- Eliminating passion from the relationship  
- Focusing solely on career goals  
||'''Correct!''' Cross-cultural couples balanced Eros passion with Pragma planning, adapting across traditions.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Remember, they didn’t reject either passion or planning — they negotiated both.||  
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Practical strategies for couples and practitioners ==
[[File:PoelenburghCouple.jpg|thumb|307x307px|''Figure 2.0'' Cornelis van Poelenburgh (1594/1595-1667) Young Poelenburgh Romantic Couple]]

There are evidence‑based steps couples can use to increase satisfaction, regardless of their dominant love styles. The exercises are grouped by domain and include real-world examples, along with references to research that supports their effectiveness. Each approach can be adapted to different attachment patterns, cultural contexts, and life stages.

'''1. Assessment and awareness'''

Understanding one’s own love style and attachment tendencies is the foundation for improving relational satisfaction. Self-awareness helps couples avoid misattributions and identify areas for growth.

* '''Tools:''' Use validated instruments such as the Love Attitudes Scale (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1986) and brief adult attachment questionnaires (e.g., Experiences in Close Relationships scale{{f}}) to identify dominant love styles and attachment patterns. These tools can reveal both strengths (e.g., strong Storge tendencies) and vulnerabilities (e.g., anxious attachment).
* '''Exercises:'''
** Each partner completes the inventory individually.
** Share and discuss results in a calm, non-judgemental setting.
** List three behaviours that make each partner feel most loved and three that      make them feel least loved

* '''Outcome:''' This process increases awareness, reduces misinterpretations of behaviours, and helps partners appreciate differences in love expression.

'''2. Communication protocols'''

Effective communication is a key mediator between love styles and relationship satisfaction. Miscommunication often escalates conflict, especially when partners have mismatched styles.{{f}}

* '''Active listening:''' One partner speaks uninterrupted for 3–5 minutes about a need, feeling, or concern. The others paraphrase for understanding before responding. This ensures clarity and reduces assumptions.
* '''“I” statements:''' Replace blaming statements like “You never listen” with “I feel unheard when… I would like…” to reduce defensiveness and promote constructive dialogue.
* '''Weekly check-ins:''' Schedule 20–30 minute conversations about satisfaction, tasks, and affection. Use a structured agenda to discuss what worked during the week, challenges, and upcoming priorities.
* '''Nonverbal awareness:''' Encourage partners to notice tone, facial expressions, and body language, which are often influenced by attachment anxiety or avoidance.

'''3. Behavioural experiments and hybridization'''

Couples with mismatched styles can improve satisfaction through small, intentional experiments.

* '''Try small experiments:''' If one partner is Eros-orientated and the other is Pragma-orientated, plan five spontaneous romantic activities in two months     alongside five practical planning sessions. Track satisfaction after each session.
* '''Reciprocity journals:''' Partners record three actions that made them feel loved each week. Monthly review sessions help identify patterns and reinforce effective behaviours.
* '''Hybridisation:''' Encourage partners to combine strengths. For example, an Eros partner can plan occasional structured activities (Pragma) while a Pragma partner engages in surprise gestures (Eros). This increases flexibility and mutual understanding.

'''4. Attachment-based regulation techniques'''

Attachment patterns significantly influence how individuals respond to stress, conflict, and intimacy. Tailored strategies improve emotional regulation and relational satisfaction.

* '''Self-soothing tools:''' Mindfulness meditation, controlled breathing exercises, and journaling can reduce anxious reactivity and obsessive rumination and are particularly useful for Mania-prone individuals.
* '''Secure-providing behaviours:''' Partners explicitly express availability, e.g., “I’m here for you later at 7,” reducing anxiety in the other partner.
* '''Therapeutic referrals:''' When attachment insecurity consistently undermines relationship functioning, evidence-based therapies such as Emotionally Focused Therapy (Johnson, 2019) or Integrative Behavioural Couple Therapy (Jacobson &amp; Christensen, 1996) can provide structured interventions and skill-building.

'''5. Conflict resolution and boundary setting'''

Conflict is inevitable but manageable when approached proactively.

* '''Conflict plan:''' Develop a time-out procedure (pause for 20 minutes), identify neutral spaces for discussion, and set rules for respectful disagreement (no insults, no rehashing past grievances).
* '''Boundary negotiation:''' Each partner lists three behaviours they find invasive. Negotiate alternatives and agree on boundaries to protect emotional safety.
* '''Repair strategies:''' Use small gestures (touch, apology, humour) to repair micro-conflicts before they escalate. Consistent repair behaviours predict long-term satisfaction (Gottman &amp; Silver, 2015).

'''6. Cultural sensitivity and life-stage recalibration'''

Cultural expectations and life-stage transitions strongly influence relationship dynamics.

* '''Discuss values explicitly:''' Openly negotiate differences in family expectations, traditions, and personal goals to prevent misinterpretation of behaviours.
* '''Life-stage checklists:''' Before transitions like cohabitation, parenthood, or career changes, complete a checklist of roles, responsibilities, financial plans, and expectations. Revisit quarterly to ensure alignment.
* '''Cultural adaptation:''' Couples in cross-cultural relationships benefit from learning each other’s norms, negotiating compromises, and practising     culturally informed affectionate behaviours.

'''7. When to seek professional help'''

Certain patterns necessitate expert assistance:

Ongoing conflicts (e.g., chronic withdrawal, enduring jealousy) that remain unaddressed. Attachment insecurities resulting in maladaptive cycles. Circumstances pertaining to maltreatment, duress, or safety issues.

Therapists offer an impartial environment, facilitate skill development, and implement evidence-based interventions. Research indicates that therapy can enhance pleasure, especially in high-risk relationships like Mania-Ludus couples (Johnson, 2019; Jones &amp; Lopez, 2019).

=== Monitoring progress and maintaining long-term satisfaction ===
Sustaining relationship satisfaction requires ongoing attention, reflection, and adjustment. Even couples with compatible love styles benefit from structured monitoring to prevent drift, misunderstandings, or decline in emotional intimacy. This section outlines evidence-based methods to track progress, reflect on relationship health, and maintain long-term satisfaction.

'''1. Self-assessment and reflection'''

* '''Regular check-ins:''' Schedule monthly self-reflection sessions. Partners individually rate satisfaction across key domains (intimacy, passion, commitment, shared goals, and conflict resolution) using a simple 1–10 scale.
* '''Reflection prompts:'''

# what were the three most positive interactions this month?
# Were there moments of miscommunication or conflict, and how were they handled?
# Did I meet my partners' emotional needs, and did they meet mine?

* '''Outcome:''' Structured reflection helps partners identify trends, recognise progress, and adjust strategies proactively.

'''2. Tracking behavioural interventions'''

Couples can use tracking tools to monitor the effectiveness of strategies introduced in the Practical Strategies section.

* '''Reciprocity journals:''' Continue recording acts of love, support, and appreciation weekly. Periodically review to note patterns, reinforce positive behaviours, and adjust where gaps appear.
* '''Experiment logs:''' Document outcomes of behavioural experiments (e.g., hybrid Eros–Pragma activities, conflict resolution exercises). Include subjective satisfaction, perceived partner responsiveness, and emotional impact.
* '''Visual tracking:''' Use graphs or charts to visualise progress over time. Visual reinforcement

These practical strategies emphasise awareness, communication, behavioural flexibility, attachment regulation, conflict management, and cultural or life-stage adaptation. Couples who actively implement these approaches often experience measurable increases in satisfaction, stability, and emotional intimacy, regardless of their initial love styles. Regular assessment, reflection, and adaptation allow love styles to complement rather than conflict with one another.

== Questions ==

=== Reflection questions ===
# Which love styles do you and your partner most identify with, and how do these styles show in day-to-day behaviour?
# In what situations does your attachment pattern (secure, anxious, or avoidant) influence how you give or receive love?
# Which one practical behavioural experiment could you try this week to ‘speak’ your partner’s style?

== Conclusion ==
Love styles provide a pragmatic framework for comprehending how individuals convey affection and what they require from romantic partnerships. The empirical evidence indicates that Eros, Storge, and Agape are frequently linked to increased satisfaction, whereas Ludus and Mania typically present difficulties, unless mitigated by secure attachment, effective communication, aligned objectives, and adaptive behaviours. Importantly, love styles do not determine fate. Couples can acquire the ability to &quot;articulate&quot; each other's love languages, establish hybrid routines that merge passion with stability, and employ structured communication and attachment-informed tactics to enhance fulfilment. This chapter provides students, counsellors, and couples with specific actions to use research-based ideas in daily relationships.

==See also==
* [[w:Triangular_theory_of_love|Triangular theory of love]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Attachment_in_adults|Attachment in adults]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/'''Love''']] (Wikiversity) 

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{{Hanging indent|1=

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Hendrick, C., &amp; Hendrick, S. (1986). A theory and method of love. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''50''(2), 392–402. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.2.392&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Hendrick, S. S., Hendrick, C., &amp; Adler, N. L. (1988). Romantic relationships: Love, satisfaction, and staying together. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''54''(6), 980–988. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.980&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Holley, S. R., Haase, C. M., Chui, I., &amp; Bloch, L. (2017). Depression, emotion regulation, and the demand/withdraw pattern during intimate relationship conflict. ''Journal of Social and Personal Relationships'', ''35''(3), 408–430. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517733334&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Jacobson, N. S., &amp; Christensen, A. (1996). ''Integrative couple therapy: Promoting acceptance and change.'' W. W. Norton.

Johnson, S. M. (2019). ''Attachment theory in practice: Emotionally focused therapy (EFT) with individuals, couples, and families.'' Guilford Press.

Lee, J. A. (1973). ''The colors of love: An exploration of the ways of loving.'' New Press.

Mikulincer, M., &amp; Shaver, P. R. (2016). ''Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change'' (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Neto, F. (2012). Compassionate love for a romantic partner, love styles and subjective Well-Being. ''Interpersona an International Journal on Personal Relationships'', ''6''(1), 23–39. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v6i1.88&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Neto, F., &amp; Da Conceição Pinto, M. (2014). Satisfaction with Love Life Across the Adult Life Span. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life'', ''10''(2), 289–304. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-014-9314-6&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Neto, F., Mullet, E., Deschamps, J., Barros, J., Benvindo, R., Camino, L., Falconi, A., Kagibanga, V., &amp; Machado, M. (2000). Cross-Cultural variations in attitudes toward love. ''Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology'', ''31''(5), 626–635. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022100031005005&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Shih, H., Kuo, M., Wu, C., Chao, Y., Huang, H., &amp; Huang, C. (2022). The Neurobiological Basis of Love: A Meta-Analysis of Human Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Maternal and Passionate love. ''Brain Sciences'', ''12''(7), 830. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12070830&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Spanier, G. B. (1976). Measuring Dyadic Adjustment: New Scales for Assessing the Quality of Marriage and Similar Dyads. ''Journal of Marriage and Family'', ''38''(1), 15. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.2307/350547&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Sprecher, S., &amp; Regan, P. C. (2002). Liking Some Things (in Some People) more than Others: Partner Preferences in Romantic Relationships and Friendships. ''Journal of Social and Personal Relationships'', ''19''(4), 463–481. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407502019004048&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Van Zutphen, N. (2016). Book review: The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work. ''Journal of Financial Therapy'', ''7''(2). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.4148/1944-9771.1141&lt;/nowiki&gt;

}}

==External links==
* [The science of love: Factors that influence relationship satisfaction](https://psyforu.com/the-science-of-love-factors-that-influence-relationship-satisfaction/)
* [Are love languages real? – The Guardian](https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2024/jan/24/are-love-languages-real)

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      <text bytes="46946" sha1="l3b7obty21bh8fpupe24h9gsw47wrg4" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Love styles and relationship satisfaction:&lt;br&gt;How do love styles affect compatibility and long-term relationship outcomes?}}
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==Overview==
{{robelbox|theme=5|title=Imagine this...}}
[[File:Ayşegül Ferhat Kurtoğlu.JPG|thumb|150px|Figure 1. Happily Married Couple.]]

You meet someone new, and the chemistry is instant. The attraction is intense, and every glance feels electric. You spend hours talking, your heart races when your phone buzzes, and you begin to imagine a future together. Months later, the honeymoon glow begins to shift. Your partner craves constant reassurance, needing to know where you are and who you’re with. Or perhaps the opposite happens, your partner seems fun and playful in the short term, but avoids serious conversations about commitment or the future. The question arises: are your styles of loving compatible, or are you headed for conflict?&quot;

Fast forward several years. You and your partner are now married. Bills arrive, careers demand attention, and family responsibilities grow. For some couples, passion deepens into companionship, creating a sense of safety and stability. For others, early excitement fades into frustration when differences in love styles resurface: one partner prioritises passion while the other values practicality, and one seeks constant closeness while the other desires independence. The way partners express and interpret love, through passion, playfulness, friendship, possessiveness, pragmatism, or selfless giving, begins to shape not only daily satisfaction but also long-term outcomes such as trust, stability, and resilience against conflict.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic interactions are fundamental to human existence. They influence emotional well-being, physical health, social functioning, and overall life satisfaction. Relationship satisfaction, the subjective assessment of the quality, contentment, and stability of a romantic partnership, predicts numerous subsequent outcomes: mental health, work performance, social support, and even longevity. However, not all partnerships produce the same levels of fulfilment. The study of [[w:Love_styles|love styles]] provides valuable insight into why certain relationships flourish while others decline, since it examines the consistent ways individuals perceive, express, and prioritise love in romantic settings.

This chapter offers a comprehensive, pragmatic, and research-based analysis of love styles and their correlation with relationship pleasure. This chapter looks at theoretical frameworks (Lee’s six-style typology and Sternberg’s triangular model), incorporates attachment and cultural viewpoints, examines empirical literature (cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic studies), offers six comprehensive, research-based case studies, and concludes with specific, methodical strategies for couples to enhance satisfaction.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Focus questions

* What are the major love styles, and how do they differ in motivations, behaviours, and outcomes?
* How do attachment patterns, communication, culture, gender, and life stage moderate the effect of love styles on satisfaction?
* What does the research (cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic) reveal about which styles predict satisfaction and when?
* How can couples and practitioners use this knowledge to increase relationship satisfaction?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Theory: Models of love and style descriptions ==
[[File:Colour Wheel Theory of Love.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' John Alan Lee's Colour Wheel Theory.|358x358px]]

{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== Lee’s six love styles ===
John Alan Lee (1973) proposed six broad styles of love that capture distinct motivations and behavioural patterns. These have been widely used{{f}} to study romantic dynamics:

* '''Eros'''—passionate, romantic, and aesthetic love. Eros prioritises intense emotional connection and sexual/physical attraction. Partners seek idealised closeness and frequent affectionate contact. Eros is experienced as ardent desire and deep longing for unity with a beloved.
* '''Ludus'''—playful, game-like love. Ludic lovers prioritise enjoyment, novelty, and sometimes multiple partners; they treat romance as recreation rather than a long-term commitment. Ludus is associated with flirtation, teasing, and emotional distancing when stakes rise.
* '''Storge'''—companionate, friendship-based love. Storge emerges from deep friendship and mutual interests; it’s slow to develop and emphasises long-term companionship, trust, and shared life. Storge is reliably linked to stable, enduring relationships.
* '''Mania'''—obsessive, possessive love. Manic love contains powerful dependency, insecurity, jealousy, and fears of abandonment. Mania produces emotional highs and lows and can be highly distressing for both partners.
* '''Pragma'''—practical, pragmatic love. Pragmatic lovers pursue compatibility and social fit: shared values, finances, family plans, or social status. Pragmatic approaches are common where marriage is embedded in family and societal expectations.
* '''Agape'''—altruistic, selfless love. Agape is unconditional, kind, and giving. Agapic partners put the welfare of their beloved first; this can foster stability but, if unbalanced, may lead to caregiver burnout.

Lee's model is significant, as it breaks down motivation and behaviour (individual desires and corresponding actions). It suggests that intimacy- and care-orientated styles (Eros, Storge, and Agape) are typically associated with more happiness, while play- or instability-orientated styles (Ludus and Mania) frequently indicate difficulties, unless the environment and relationship expectations align with those styles.{{f}}

=== Attachment theory: Background and integration ===
Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969; Ainsworth, 1978) states that early caregiving experiences establish internal working models that influence adults' pursuit of intimacy and emotional regulation. Adult attachment is generally divided into secure, anxious, and avoidant patterns. Secure individuals are at ease with connection and independence; anxious individuals fear abandonment and require constant reassurance; avoidant individuals minimise closeness and maintain distance{{f}}.

[[File:Adult attachment patterns.svg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Adult attachment patterns. '''Avoidant''' people equal intimacy with loss of independence &amp; control. Constantly try to avoid closeness. '''Anxious''' people are constantly involved with intimacy and their partners willingness to love them back.]]

Attachment influences love styles. Secure attachment facilitates the adaptive manifestations of Eros, Storge, and Agape. Anxious attachment correlates with mania-like activities, while avoidant attachment exhibits characteristics akin to Ludus, including emotional detachment and reluctance to commit{{f}}. In the presence of attachment insecurity, even &quot;adaptive&quot; styles can transform into maladaptive ones (e.g., anxious-Eros may become attached; avoidant-Storge may become aloof){{f}}. Research indicates that attachment influences the relationship between love types and satisfaction: secure attachment enhances favourable outcomes, while insecure attachment heightens risks (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).

=== Evolutionary and psychological accounts ===
Evolutionary frameworks identify love styles as unique mating strategies: Eros fosters short-term, passionate mating and the formation of pair bonds; Pragma endorses partner selection based on long-term resource and compatibility factors; and Agape encourages collaborative parenting{{f}}. Psychological frameworks, such as self-determination theory (Deci &amp; Ryan, 2000), emphasise the significance of need fulfilment: relationship styles that promote relatedness, autonomy, and competence (e.g., Storge, Agape) are indicative of well-being fulfilment. Neurobiological studies demonstrate that passionate love stimulates dopaminergic reward pathways, resulting in heightened arousal, whereas companionate love activates oxytocin-mediated affiliative systems, underscoring differing subjective experiences and implications for longevity (Shih, Kuo, Wu, Chao, Huang, &amp; Huang, 2022).

=== Cultural and life-stage context ===
Cultural influences and life stages profoundly impact the adaptability of diverse styles. Collectivist societies, which emphasise familial alignment and societal coherence, generally endorse Pragma and Storge{{f}}. Individualistic societies emphasise Eros and romantic independence{{f}}. Eros dominates in early adult pair-bonding, whereas Storge and Pragma become more prominent in midlife and parenthood, as stability and shared objectives grow in importance (Fourmanov, 2021; Netoeet al., 2000).

== Empirical evidence on love styles and relationship satisfaction ==
Love styles profoundly influence the quality, stability, and progression of romantic relationships. Studies demonstrate that certain approaches are reliably linked to increased satisfaction, while others may provide difficulties until mitigated by attachment security, effective communication, or cultural influences. This section synthesises cross-sectional, longitudinal, and meta-analytic evidence to demonstrate the impact of each style on relationship satisfaction.

=== Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence ===
Cross-sectional research offers insights into the correlations between love styles and relationship pleasure. Numerous studies indicate that Eros, Storge, and Agape have a positive correlation with satisfaction levels (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1986; Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002). Eros indicates enhanced sexual and emotional intimacy, whereas Storge and Agape foster consistent support and companionship (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

Ludus and Mania frequently have negative relationships with overall contentment. The avoidance of commitment by Ludus partners frustrates those seeking intimacy, while Mania's dependency and jealousy induce relational stress (Brunell &amp; Buelow, 2015; Hendrick et al., 1988). Pragma yields different outcomes: alignment of partner objectives (shared values, money, familial aspirations) forecasts contentment, especially in collectivist societies; conversely, when goals don't align between partners, it can result in emotionally detached relationships (Neto, 2012).

Longitudinal studies demonstrate the impact of love styles on satisfaction over time. Eros forecasts elevated initial satisfaction but necessitates the incorporation of intimacy and commitment for stability; couples with high Eros who cultivate Storge behaviours preserve satisfaction (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1986). Storge and Agape successfully anticipate lasting satisfaction over years and decades, as friendship and caregiving minimise external pressures (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006). In contrast, couples characterised by Ludus and Mania exhibit increased variability and a heightened risk of breakdown; nevertheless, treatments like communication training can enhance outcomes (Johnson, 2019; Jones &amp; Lopez, 2019).

Meta-analytic syntheses highlight effect sizes. Aggregated findings reveal moderate positive correlations between Eros, Storge, and Agape with contentment (r = .25–.40) and slight negative correlations for Ludus and Mania (r = −.10 to −.25) (Neto, 2012). Contextual factors, such as cultural orientation (individualist versus collectivist) and attachment security, elucidate certain discrepancies in these findings.

=== Mechanisms: How styles influence satisfaction ===
Research identifies several pathways through which love styles affect satisfaction:

* '''Attachment Security:''' Secure attachment amplifies positive effects of Eros, Storge, and Agape and mitigates negative effects of Mania and Ludus. Anxious or avoidant attachment exacerbates conflict and dissatisfaction (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).
* '''Communication:''' Effective disclosure, active listening, and conflict resolution mediate style effects. Couples with poor communication experience styles clash more intensely {{g}} (Van Zutphen, 2016){{ic|This is a book review rather than a peer-reviewed source. It doesn't mention love styles.}}.
* '''Perceived Equity:''' Excessive selflessness (Agape) without reciprocity reduces satisfaction. Balanced exchanges protect long-term relationship quality (Balzen et al., 2021).
* '''Cultural and Life-Stage Factors:''' Cultural expectations influence which styles are adaptive. Pragma is more predictive of satisfaction in collectivist or arranged-union contexts, while Eros is more predictive in individualist, early adult relationships (Neto, 2012). Life-stage transitions, such as parenthood or career changes, further shape satisfaction trajectories.

=== Effects by love style ===
* '''Eros:''' Predicts high initial satisfaction, sexual fulfilment, and emotional intimacy but requires the integration of Storge or Agape behaviours for long-term stability (Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002).
* '''Ludus:''' Enhances excitement in casual contexts but typically reduces satisfaction in committed relationships unless both partners share playful expectations (Balzen et al., 2021).
* '''Storge:''' Promotes steady companionship, trust, and enduring satisfaction; may lack excitement without complementary passion (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006; Neto, 2012).
* '''Mania:''' Associated with emotional highs and lows, conflict, and lower satisfaction; moderated by secure attachment and communication interventions (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).
* '''Pragma:''' High satisfaction when goals align; emotional distance occurs if practical considerations dominate (Neto, 2012).
* '''Agape:''' Strong predictor of stable, long-term satisfaction due to generosity and caregiving; over-reliance can cause perceived inequity (Balzen et al., 2021).

=== Style similarity and interaction effects ===
Couples exhibiting corresponding dominant styles (e.g., Eros–Eros, Storge–Storge) typically report greater happiness than dissimilar couples (Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002). Moreover, hybridisation, in which partners cultivate complementary habits (e.g., Eros partners engaging in pragmatic planning), enhances happiness trajectories (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

Evidence indicates that love styles directly affect relationship pleasure; however, their impact is contingent upon attachment, communication, equity, culture, and life stage. Comprehending these characteristics enables couples and practitioners to customise interventions for enhanced relationship outcomes.

== Integration: A conceptual model of love styles and relationship satisfaction ==
Recognising the interactions between love styles and other relational characteristics is crucial for anticipating relationship satisfaction and informing interventions. A conceptual model can combine individual predispositions, relational dynamics, and contextual factors to provide pathways to fulfilment, stability, and enduring success.

=== Primary influence: Individual love style ===
The principal factor in the {{what}} model is the individual's predominant love style, which embodies both motivation and traditional behavioural habits. Each style communicates unique relational objectives and emotional requirements:

* Eros: seeks profound desire, sexual and emotional intimacy, and an idealised bond.
* Ludus: Emphasises enjoyment, innovation, and minimal-commitment engagements.
* Storge: Prioritises companionship, trust, and communal life practices.
* Mania: Defined by reliance, jealousy, and fear of abandonment.
* Pragma: Emphasises pragmatic compatibility, common values, and social congruence.
* Agape: Signifies unconditional affection, altruism, and magnanimity towards the relationship.

These styles provide a '''baseline motivation''' that shapes perceptions, behaviours, and emotional reactions in a relationship. Importantly, they are not fixed; individuals can learn complementary behaviours and form hybrid styles that balance passion, stability, and practicality (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

=== Moderators: Factors that influence how styles affect satisfaction ===
Moderators are variables that alter the intensity or orientation of the correlation between love style and fulfilment. Principal moderators comprise:

* Attachment Security: Individuals with secure attachments express and respond to love more effectively, hence increasing contentment. Insecure attachment (anxious or avoidant) exacerbates the difficulties associated with Mania and Ludus styles (Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).
* Cultural Norms: Collectivist cultures prioritise Pragma and Storge to match with familial and societal standards, while individualist cultures highlight Eros and personal-choice romantic love (Neto, 2012).
* Gender Norms: Societal expectations of gender roles can dictate the expression and perception of love styles, affecting satisfaction trends.
* Relationship Phase: Early-stage partnerships may thrive on Eros intensity; however, the midlife and parental stages necessitate greater Storge and Pragma behaviours to provide stability.

=== Mediators: Mechanisms linking love styles to satisfaction ===
'''Mediators''' explain how love styles translate into satisfaction. Key processes include:

* '''Communication Quality:''' Effective disclosure, active listening, and problem-solving mediate the impact of style mismatches. Poor communication can exacerbate conflict in high-risk pairings, such as Mania–Ludus couples (Van Zutphen, 2016).
* '''Perceived Equity:''' Balanced exchanges of care and effort prevent dissatisfaction. Excessive selflessness without reciprocity (as in Agape) can lead to perceived inequity and burnout (Balzen et al., 2021).
* '''Stress and Coping:''' Couples who manage external stress effectively maintain satisfaction even when styles initially conflict. Stress regulation strategies, including shared problem-solving and emotional support, buffer the negative impact of incompatible styles.{{f}}

=== Outcomes: Predicting satisfaction and stability ===
The {{what}} model predicts outcomes that result from the interaction of love styles, moderators, and mediators:

* '''Relationship satisfaction:''' Overall subjective evaluation of closeness, fulfilment, and emotional quality.
* '''Relationship stability:''' Continuity of the partnership over time, influenced by compatibility, hybrid behaviours, and adaptive negotiation.
* '''Conflict frequency and intensity:''' How often disagreements occur and their severity. Effective mediation and communication reduce escalation.
* '''Risk of dissolution:''' Likelihood of separation, influenced by maladaptive styles, unresolved conflicts, and misalignment of goals or expectations.{{f}}

=== Practical implications and actionable strategies ===
The {{what}} conceptual model identifies several actionable strategies for couples and practitioners:

* '''Communication training:''' Strengthen dialogue and active listening skills to mediate mismatched styles.
* '''Attachment interventions:''' Emotionally focused therapy and integrated behavioural couple therapy can improve regulation in anxious or avoidant partners.
* '''Hybrid style development:''' Encourage partners to adopt complementary behaviours (e.g., an Eros partner practicing Pragma planning or a Pragma partner engaging in spontaneous romantic gestures).
* '''Expectation negotiation:''' Explicitly discuss life goals, household responsibilities, and intimacy needs to align partner expectations.
* '''Cultural adaptation:''' For cross-cultural couples, negotiate traditions, family involvement, and norms to prevent misunderstandings and conflict.{{f}}

This {{what}} conceptual model emphasises that relationship satisfaction arises from a dynamic interplay of love styles, relational processes, and contextual factors. While individual styles provide a baseline tendency, satisfaction depends on how effectively couples manage moderators (attachment, culture, gender, life stage) and engage mediators (communication, equity, stress coping). Hybrid behaviours, learning complementary strategies, and structured interventions create tangible pathways to long-term relational fulfilment.{{f}}

== Quiz ==

=== Love styles and Relationship satisfaction ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which love style is characterised by practical decision-making in choosing a partner?}
- Mania
- Eros
+ Pragma
||'''Correct!''' Pragma is a practical love style focused on compatibility and logical choice.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Try again — think about which love style is driven by logic over passion.||

{Which two love styles are most strongly linked to higher relationship satisfaction in research?}
- Ludus &amp; Mania
+ Eros &amp; Storge
- Pragma &amp; Agape
||'''Correct!''' Research often links Eros (passionate) and Storge (friendship-based) to greater satisfaction.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for styles that emphasise intimacy, trust, and strong connection.||

{True or False: Attachment style has little to no impact on the relationship between love style and satisfaction.}
- True
+ False
||'''Correct!''' Attachment style plays a significant role in how love styles influence satisfaction.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Attachment style is a major factor in relationship outcomes.||

{Scenario: Sam enjoys playful dating, avoids serious talks about the future, and is dating Pat, who wants deep commitment and emotional closeness. Which love style best describes Sam?}
+ Ludus
- Eros
- Storge
||'''Correct!''' Sam’s behaviour reflects Ludus — a game-playing approach to love.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Think about which style prioritises fun over commitment.||

{Scenario: Taylor and Morgan have been together for 10 years. They describe each other as best friends and enjoy spending quiet evenings together. Which love style best describes their relationship?}
- Mania
+ Storge
- Pragma
||'''Correct!''' Storge is friendship-based love, often found in long-term stable relationships.||
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for a style that grows from companionship and trust.||

&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Case studies ==
Below are six extended, realistic, research-informed cases. These are illustrative composites grounded in the empirical patterns described above. Each case includes context, typical behaviours, struggles, therapeutic or adaptive steps taken, and outcome indicators.

=== Case 1: Eros–Eros (young adult couple) ===
Alex (22, undergraduate) and Jordan (23, postgraduate student) both exhibit elevated Eros inclinations. They encountered each other during laboratory work and swiftly formed an immense attraction. Their days comprised prolonged, intimate discussions, regular affectionate physical interactions, and impromptu romantic endeavours (short excursions, surprise dinners). Initial relationship satisfaction was elevated; both parties indicated substantial sexual and emotional gratification.

Challenges: elevated academic stress and scheduling constraints provoked conflict. Elevated emotional sensitivity amplified minor offences. Periodically, one another's demands, such as Alex's desire for daily intimacy and Jordan's need for focused study time, overwhelmed both partners.

The couple implemented weekly &quot;relationship planning&quot; meetings, used brief, pre-established signals to request study time (mitigating feelings of rejection), and arranged one low-pressure date each week. Alex focused on enduring separations, whereas Jordan engaged in more spontaneous minor gestures, such as texts and brief visits.

Result: after six months, Dyadic Adjustment Scale scores remained elevated; frequency of conflict diminished. This scenario demonstrates that Eros love facilitates initial gratification but requires deliberate coordination and the incorporation of Storge-style procedures to maintain enduring satisfaction.

(References: Sprecher &amp; Regan, 2002; Spanier, 1976)

=== Case 2: Storge–Agape (long-term marriage) ===
Emma (45) and Paul (47) initially met as neighbours but gradually evolved into life partners, with friendship serving as the foundation. Both embody Storge and Agape: consistent mutual care, systematic problem-solving, and altruistic caregiving amid illness or adversity. Throughout parenthood and professional transitions, they stressed the importance of relationship cooperation.

Challenges: midlife caregiving and professional obligations diminished time for each other; little grievances collected due to unexpressed expectations regarding domestic responsibilities.

Adaptive measures: they implemented weekly &quot;solidarity sessions&quot; to redistribute tasks, convey gratitude, and recognise minor opportunities for reciprocity. They further embarked on an annual &quot;relationship retreat&quot; weekend to rekindle their connection.

Their longitudinal measures indicate sustained high levels of satisfaction and resilience in the face of stressors. This scenario illustrates how Storge and Agape facilitate enduring satisfaction through consistent, low-intensity pleasant encounters.

(References: Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006; Balzen et al., 2021).

=== Case 3: Mania–Ludus (high-risk, therapeutic case) ===
Rachel (26, marketing) exhibits mania, behaviour characterised by frequent reassurance-seeking, jealousy, and obsessive obsession. Mark (28, software engineer) exhibits Ludus: he revels in flirting and casual encounters with minimal commitment. The initial phases of the partnership were characterised by tumultuous disputes, succeeded by emotional seclusion.

Challenges: Rachel interpreted Mark's taunting as neglect; Mark viewed Rachel's demands as domineering. Conflict cycles entail escalation through blaming followed by disengagement.

Adaptive measures: the couple participated in 12 sessions of integrative behavioural couple therapy, emphasising boundary establishment, specific expressions of wants (I-statements), and organised &quot;attachment work&quot; to alleviate anxiety. Mark engaged in consistent check-ins; Rachel cultivated self-soothing techniques and diminished monitoring habits.

Result: a reduction in dispute frequency and an enhancement in reported satisfaction over a six-month period. The case underscores the necessity for tailored therapy in high-risk couples by emphasising attachment control and behavioural agreements.

(References: Johnson, 2019; Jones &amp; Lopez, 2019).

=== Case 4: Pragma–Pragma (cultural match, mid-adulthood) ===
Priya (30, a civil engineer) and Daniel (32, a finance analyst) originate from societies that prioritise familial expectations. Their relationship commenced with candid talks regarding career, finances, and family planning. They agree on priorities, selected living arrangements, and long-term objectives.

Challenges: intermittent discrepancies in social expectations (Priya is more family-orientated; Daniel is more focused on career networking).

Adaptive measures: organised alternate family/network gatherings, collaborative financial planning sessions, and established decision-making protocols.

Result: Evaluation of Relationship Scale scores reflect elevated satisfaction levels. This instance exemplifies the efficacy of Pragma when couples' life aspirations are congruent, particularly within collectivist cultural frameworks.

(Neto, 2012; Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1990).

=== Case 5: Hybrid Eros–Pragma (mixed priorities) ===
Olivia, a 27-year-old designer, prioritises spontaneity and emotion (Eros). Sam (29, urban planner) emphasises organisation and strategic foresight (Pragma). In the initial stages of their relationship, the couple encountered discord: Olivia desired spontaneous excursions, while Sam preferred to establish financial schedules and residential plans.

Adaptive measures: they established &quot;romance windows&quot;, scheduled yet emotionally receptive surprise events—and &quot;planning windows&quot;—sessions dedicated to realistic discussions. Each spouse contributed: Sam consented to organise a monthly surprise, while Olivia engaged in budget and house planning.

The pair indicated a 20% enhancement in Couples Satisfaction Index scores after one year. This case demonstrates that hybrid styles can be mutually reinforcing when spouses negotiate agreeable routines.

(Funk &amp; Rogge, 2007; Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 2006).

=== Case 6: Cross-cultural Eros–Pragma (negotiation of expectations) ===
Olivia, a 27-year-old designer, prioritises spontaneity and emotion (Eros). Sam (29, urban planner) emphasises organisation and strategic foresight (Pragma). In the initial stages of their relationship, the couple encountered discord: Olivia desired spontaneous excursions, while Sam preferred to establish financial schedules and residential plans.

Adaptive measures: they established &quot;romance windows&quot;, scheduled yet emotionally receptive surprise events—and &quot;planning windows&quot;—sessions dedicated to realistic discussions. Each spouse contributed: Sam consented to organise a monthly surprise, while Olivia engaged in budget and house planning.

The pair indicated a 20% enhancement in Couples Satisfaction Index scores after one year. This case demonstrates that hybrid styles can be mutually reinforcing when spouses negotiate agreeable routines.

(Neto &amp; Pinto, 2015; Mikulincer &amp; Shaver, 2016).

== Quiz ==

=== Case studies: Love styles and relationship satisfaction ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Which love style pairing was characterised by high initial satisfaction but required deliberate coordination and planning to sustain long-term stability?}  
- Storge–Agape (Emma and Paul)  
- Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
+ Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
- Pragma–Pragma (Priya and Daniel)  
||'''Correct!''' The Eros–Eros couple (Alex &amp; Jordan) had strong passion at the start but needed planning meetings and boundaries to sustain satisfaction.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Think of the pair whose intensity created both passion and challenges in balancing study and intimacy.||  

{Which couple used “solidarity sessions” and annual retreats to maintain balance during midlife challenges?}  
+ Storge–Agape (Emma and Paul)  
- Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
- Pragma–Pragma (Priya and Daniel)  
- Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
||'''Correct!''' Emma &amp; Paul maintained satisfaction through structured solidarity sessions and retreats.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for the couple who relied on friendship and caregiving styles.||  

{Which pairing required structured therapy sessions to address cycles of jealousy and disengagement?}  
- Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
+ Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
- Hybrid Eros–Pragma (Olivia and Sam)  
- Storge–Agape (Emma and Paul)  
||'''Correct!''' Rachel &amp; Mark needed therapy to regulate anxiety and set boundaries due to Mania–Ludus conflict.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Consider the high-risk pairing with jealousy and game-playing.||  

{Which love style combination demonstrated particularly high satisfaction in a collectivist cultural context?}  
- Eros–Eros (Alex and Jordan)  
- Mania–Ludus (Rachel and Mark)  
+ Pragma–Pragma (Priya and Daniel)  
- Agape–Storge (Emma and Paul)  
||'''Correct!''' Priya &amp; Daniel matched well because their pragmatic style fit cultural and family expectations.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Look for the couple whose planning and family alignment supported stability.||  

{In this case, which strategy improved satisfaction?}  
- Avoiding conflict altogether  
+ Scheduling both “romance windows” and “planning windows”  
- Reducing all spontaneity  
- Only focusing on financial planning  
||'''Correct!''' Olivia &amp; Sam used “romance windows” for passion and “planning windows” for structure to balance Eros and Pragma.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Think about how they blended passion and planning instead of choosing one over the other.||  

{What was the key adaptation?}  
- Refusing cultural negotiation  
+ Balancing romantic spontaneity with pragmatic planning in different cultural contexts  
- Eliminating passion from the relationship  
- Focusing solely on career goals  
||'''Correct!''' Cross-cultural couples balanced Eros passion with Pragma planning, adapting across traditions.||  
||'''Incorrect.''' Remember, they didn’t reject either passion or planning — they negotiated both.||  
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Practical strategies for couples and practitioners ==
[[File:PoelenburghCouple.jpg|thumb|307x307px|''Figure 2.0'' Cornelis van Poelenburgh (1594/1595-1667) Young Poelenburgh Romantic Couple]]

There are evidence‑based steps couples can use to increase satisfaction, regardless of their dominant love styles. The exercises are grouped by domain and include real-world examples, along with references to research that supports their effectiveness. Each approach can be adapted to different attachment patterns, cultural contexts, and life stages.

'''1. Assessment and awareness'''

Understanding one’s own love style and attachment tendencies is the foundation for improving relational satisfaction. Self-awareness helps couples avoid misattributions and identify areas for growth.

* '''Tools:''' Use validated instruments such as the Love Attitudes Scale (Hendrick &amp; Hendrick, 1986) and brief adult attachment questionnaires (e.g., Experiences in Close Relationships scale{{f}}) to identify dominant love styles and attachment patterns. These tools can reveal both strengths (e.g., strong Storge tendencies) and vulnerabilities (e.g., anxious attachment).
* '''Exercises:'''
** Each partner completes the inventory individually.
** Share and discuss results in a calm, non-judgemental setting.
** List three behaviours that make each partner feel most loved and three that      make them feel least loved

* '''Outcome:''' This process increases awareness, reduces misinterpretations of behaviours, and helps partners appreciate differences in love expression.

'''2. Communication protocols'''

Effective communication is a key mediator between love styles and relationship satisfaction. Miscommunication often escalates conflict, especially when partners have mismatched styles.{{f}}

* '''Active listening:''' One partner speaks uninterrupted for 3–5 minutes about a need, feeling, or concern. The others paraphrase for understanding before responding. This ensures clarity and reduces assumptions.
* '''“I” statements:''' Replace blaming statements like “You never listen” with “I feel unheard when… I would like…” to reduce defensiveness and promote constructive dialogue.
* '''Weekly check-ins:''' Schedule 20–30 minute conversations about satisfaction, tasks, and affection. Use a structured agenda to discuss what worked during the week, challenges, and upcoming priorities.
* '''Nonverbal awareness:''' Encourage partners to notice tone, facial expressions, and body language, which are often influenced by attachment anxiety or avoidance.

'''3. Behavioural experiments and hybridization'''

Couples with mismatched styles can improve satisfaction through small, intentional experiments.

* '''Try small experiments:''' If one partner is Eros-orientated and the other is Pragma-orientated, plan five spontaneous romantic activities in two months     alongside five practical planning sessions. Track satisfaction after each session.
* '''Reciprocity journals:''' Partners record three actions that made them feel loved each week. Monthly review sessions help identify patterns and reinforce effective behaviours.
* '''Hybridisation:''' Encourage partners to combine strengths. For example, an Eros partner can plan occasional structured activities (Pragma) while a Pragma partner engages in surprise gestures (Eros). This increases flexibility and mutual understanding.

'''4. Attachment-based regulation techniques'''

Attachment patterns significantly influence how individuals respond to stress, conflict, and intimacy. Tailored strategies improve emotional regulation and relational satisfaction.

* '''Self-soothing tools:''' Mindfulness meditation, controlled breathing exercises, and journaling can reduce anxious reactivity and obsessive rumination and are particularly useful for Mania-prone individuals.
* '''Secure-providing behaviours:''' Partners explicitly express availability, e.g., “I’m here for you later at 7,” reducing anxiety in the other partner.
* '''Therapeutic referrals:''' When attachment insecurity consistently undermines relationship functioning, evidence-based therapies such as Emotionally Focused Therapy (Johnson, 2019) or Integrative Behavioural Couple Therapy (Jacobson &amp; Christensen, 1996) can provide structured interventions and skill-building.

'''5. Conflict resolution and boundary setting'''

Conflict is inevitable but manageable when approached proactively.

* '''Conflict plan:''' Develop a time-out procedure (pause for 20 minutes), identify neutral spaces for discussion, and set rules for respectful disagreement (no insults, no rehashing past grievances).
* '''Boundary negotiation:''' Each partner lists three behaviours they find invasive. Negotiate alternatives and agree on boundaries to protect emotional safety.
* '''Repair strategies:''' Use small gestures (touch, apology, humour) to repair micro-conflicts before they escalate. Consistent repair behaviours predict long-term satisfaction (Gottman &amp; Silver, 2015).

'''6. Cultural sensitivity and life-stage recalibration'''

Cultural expectations and life-stage transitions strongly influence relationship dynamics.

* '''Discuss values explicitly:''' Openly negotiate differences in family expectations, traditions, and personal goals to prevent misinterpretation of behaviours.
* '''Life-stage checklists:''' Before transitions like cohabitation, parenthood, or career changes, complete a checklist of roles, responsibilities, financial plans, and expectations. Revisit quarterly to ensure alignment.
* '''Cultural adaptation:''' Couples in cross-cultural relationships benefit from learning each other’s norms, negotiating compromises, and practising     culturally informed affectionate behaviours.

'''7. When to seek professional help'''

Certain patterns necessitate expert assistance:

Ongoing conflicts (e.g., chronic withdrawal, enduring jealousy) that remain unaddressed. Attachment insecurities resulting in maladaptive cycles. Circumstances pertaining to maltreatment, duress, or safety issues.

Therapists offer an impartial environment, facilitate skill development, and implement evidence-based interventions. Research indicates that therapy can enhance pleasure, especially in high-risk relationships like Mania-Ludus couples (Johnson, 2019; Jones &amp; Lopez, 2019).

=== Monitoring progress and maintaining long-term satisfaction ===
Sustaining relationship satisfaction requires ongoing attention, reflection, and adjustment. Even couples with compatible love styles benefit from structured monitoring to prevent drift, misunderstandings, or decline in emotional intimacy. This section outlines evidence-based methods to track progress, reflect on relationship health, and maintain long-term satisfaction.

'''1. Self-assessment and reflection'''

* '''Regular check-ins:''' Schedule monthly self-reflection sessions. Partners individually rate satisfaction across key domains (intimacy, passion, commitment, shared goals, and conflict resolution) using a simple 1–10 scale.
* '''Reflection prompts:'''

# what were the three most positive interactions this month?
# Were there moments of miscommunication or conflict, and how were they handled?
# Did I meet my partners' emotional needs, and did they meet mine?

* '''Outcome:''' Structured reflection helps partners identify trends, recognise progress, and adjust strategies proactively.

'''2. Tracking behavioural interventions'''

Couples can use tracking tools to monitor the effectiveness of strategies introduced in the Practical Strategies section.

* '''Reciprocity journals:''' Continue recording acts of love, support, and appreciation weekly. Periodically review to note patterns, reinforce positive behaviours, and adjust where gaps appear.
* '''Experiment logs:''' Document outcomes of behavioural experiments (e.g., hybrid Eros–Pragma activities, conflict resolution exercises). Include subjective satisfaction, perceived partner responsiveness, and emotional impact.
* '''Visual tracking:''' Use graphs or charts to visualise progress over time. Visual reinforcement

These practical strategies emphasise awareness, communication, behavioural flexibility, attachment regulation, conflict management, and cultural or life-stage adaptation. Couples who actively implement these approaches often experience measurable increases in satisfaction, stability, and emotional intimacy, regardless of their initial love styles. Regular assessment, reflection, and adaptation allow love styles to complement rather than conflict with one another.

== Questions ==

=== Reflection questions ===
# Which love styles do you and your partner most identify with, and how do these styles show in day-to-day behaviour?
# In what situations does your attachment pattern (secure, anxious, or avoidant) influence how you give or receive love?
# Which one practical behavioural experiment could you try this week to ‘speak’ your partner’s style?

== Conclusion ==
Love styles provide a pragmatic framework for comprehending how individuals convey affection and what they require from romantic partnerships. The empirical evidence indicates that Eros, Storge, and Agape are frequently linked to increased satisfaction, whereas Ludus and Mania typically present difficulties, unless mitigated by secure attachment, effective communication, aligned objectives, and adaptive behaviours. Importantly, love styles do not determine fate. Couples can acquire the ability to &quot;articulate&quot; each other's love languages, establish hybrid routines that merge passion with stability, and employ structured communication and attachment-informed tactics to enhance fulfilment. This chapter provides students, counsellors, and couples with specific actions to use research-based ideas in daily relationships.

==See also==
* [[w:Triangular_theory_of_love|Triangular theory of love]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Attachment_in_adults|Attachment in adults]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Love|Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/'''Love''']] (Wikiversity) 

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

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Jacobson, N. S., &amp; Christensen, A. (1996). ''Integrative couple therapy: Promoting acceptance and change.'' W. W. Norton.

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Neto, F., &amp; Da Conceição Pinto, M. (2014). Satisfaction with Love Life Across the Adult Life Span. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life'', ''10''(2), 289–304. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-014-9314-6&lt;/nowiki&gt;

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Shih, H., Kuo, M., Wu, C., Chao, Y., Huang, H., &amp; Huang, C. (2022). The Neurobiological Basis of Love: A Meta-Analysis of Human Functional Neuroimaging Studies of Maternal and Passionate love. ''Brain Sciences'', ''12''(7), 830. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12070830&lt;/nowiki&gt;

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}}

==External links==
* [The science of love: Factors that influence relationship satisfaction](https://psyforu.com/the-science-of-love-factors-that-influence-relationship-satisfaction/)
* [Are love languages real? – The Guardian](https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2024/jan/24/are-love-languages-real)

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# [[/Moral disgust and jury decision-making/]] - How does moral disgust influence jurors' judgments of guilt, blame, and punishment? {{ME-By|Yellowvines}}
# [[/Neurobiology of love/]] - What neural systems and biochemical processes underlie love? {{ME-By|Honeybelle11}}
# [[/Nitrous oxide and emotion/]] - How does nitrous oxide influence emotional experience and mood? {{ME-By|U3275873}}
# [[/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being/]] - How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Mymunu}}
# [[/Phubbing and emotion/]] - What are the emotional causes and consequences of phubbing? {{ME-By|U3243961}}
# [[/Positive emotion dysregulation/]] - What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? {{ME-By|P U3270518}}
# [[/Psychedelic treatment of eating disorders/]] - How might psychedelic-assisted therapy influence psychological mechanisms involved in eating eating disorders? {{ME-By|Leilab23}}
# [[/Responsiveness and interpersonal trust/]] - How does responsiveness foster trust in relationships? {{ME-By|U3282586}}
# [[/Romantic entertainment and love beliefs/]] - How do romantic entertainment influence beliefs and expectations about love and romantic relationships? {{ME-By|U3247927}}
# [[/Romantic jealousy/]] - Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are its impacts, and how can it be managed?{{ME-By|U3279062}}
# [[/Secondary trauma in healthcare workers/]] - What are the emotional consequences of secondary trauma in healthcare settings? {{ME-By|U3257744}}
# [[/Seasonal affective disorder/]] - What is SAD, why does it occur, and how can it be managed? {{ME-By|Greg Philips}}
# [[/Self-blame and emotion/]] - How does self-blame influence emotional responses to negative events? {{ME-By|GU3281277}}
# [[/Self-disclosure and emotional intimacy/]] - How does self-disclosure foster emotional closeness in relationships? {{ME-By|U3283302}}
# [[/Self-stigma and emotion/]] - How does self-stigma impact emotional well-being? {{ME-By|Pinkk47}}
# [[/Social connection and emotion regulation/]] - How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions? {{ME-By|U3284040}}
# [[/Socioemotional selectivity theory and wellbeing in ageing/]] - How do social and emotional experiences affect wellbeing as people age? {{ME-By|U3253354}}
# [[/Technology-based pain management/]] - How can technology-based tools alter pain perception and pain management? {{ME-By|ChelsSchofield}}
# [[/Time perception in mood disorders/]] - How do anxiety and depression alter the subjective experience of time? {{ME-By|Safiaah}}
# [[/Trust rebuilding after trauma/]] - How can trauma survivors develop trust in similar situations again? {{ME-By|U3284437}}
# [[/Volunteer wellbeing/]] - How does volunteering affect volunteers' subjective wellbeing? {{ME-By|U3216851}}

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Boredom and interest/]] - How do boredom and interest shape emotional and motivational states? {{ME-By|U3239431}}
# [[/Falling in love/]] - What motivational and emotional processes underlie romantic attraction and falling in love? {{ME-By|Mort006}}
# [[/Life purpose and well-being/]] - How does a sense of purpose contribute to well-being and how can it be cultivated? {{ME-By|U3286962}}
# [[/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour/]] - How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action? {{ME-By|U3263365}}
# [[/Oxytocin as a neuromodulator/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of oxytocin as a neuromodulator? {{ME-By|U3306498}}
# [[/Reward prediction error/]] - How does discrepancy between expected and actual rewards influence learning, emotion, and motivation? {{ME-By|Aivy.uc.cbr}}
# [[/Warm-glow giving/]] - Why does giving feel good and how does this influence prosocial behaviour? {{ME-By|Karabi Tasneem}}
# [[/Wisdom, motivation, and emotion/]] - How do motivational and emotional processes contribute to wisdom? {{ME-By|Med.011387}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bully Metric Timestamp units</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832455</id>
      <parentid>2807167</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T19:44:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832455</origin>
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      <text bytes="3635" sha1="36iervjw3z7k3jfcfmsyaxyb32x4vdy" xml:space="preserve">[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Examples of contextualized vs decontextualized time]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Earth_Gravity_Calculator.html Earth Gravity Calculator 

'''Figure 6b''' lists selected modern time units categorized by their relationship to physical phenomena. Red entries represent contextual units tied to irregular astronomical conditions. Black entries denote decontextualized units that emulate the average value of their contextual counterparts. Blue entries identify synchronized units that use &quot;leaps&quot; to align with the unpredictable duration of contextual time.

Unlike synchronized units (blue), Bully timestamps do not require &quot;leaps&quot; because they are entirely decontextualized from astronomical events. Traditional calendars use leap seconds and leap years to force a fixed counting system to stay aligned with the Earth's irregular rotation and orbit. Because Bully units prioritize a consistent, linear count of SI seconds over astronomical alignment, there is no &quot;drift&quot; to correct. A new Bully timestamp is realized every 3055 SI seconds, regardless of whether the Earth’s rotation has slowed or where the planet is in its orbital path.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;

|+ '''Figure 6b''': Selected modern time units categorized by contextualization
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Time Unit
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;width:15%;&quot; | Type
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Definition / Basis

|- style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f0;&quot;
| '''Solar second'''
| style=&quot;color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Contextual
| The 86,400th part of a solar day. Varies daily as Earth's rotation speed fluctuates.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f0;&quot;
| '''Sidereal day'''
| style=&quot;color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Contextual
| One 360° Earth rotation relative to stars (~23h 56m 4.1s). Changes based on Earth's rotational irregularities.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f0;&quot;
| '''Solar Year (Tropical)'''
| style=&quot;color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Contextual
| Time for the Sun to return to the same equinox position (~365.2422 solar days).

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''SI second'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| The duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation from the cesium-133 atom. The fundamental &quot;fixed&quot; unit.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''SI minute / hour'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| Fixed intervals of 60 and 3,600 SI seconds, respectively.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''Bully timestamp units'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| Time unit based strictly on SI seconds. They maintain a linear count independent of Earth's rotation or orbit.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''Julian year'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| Exactly 365.25 Julian days (31,557,600 SI seconds). Used as a standard astronomical constant.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f5ff;&quot;
| '''Gregorian day'''
| style=&quot;color:blue; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Synchronized
| Usually 86,400 SI seconds, but may include &quot;leap seconds&quot; to remain aligned with the Contextual Solar Day.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f5ff;&quot;
| '''Gregorian leap year'''
| style=&quot;color:blue; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Synchronized
| A 366-day interval used to keep the Gregorian calendar synchronized with the Solar (Tropical) year.
|}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832466</id>
      <parentid>2832455</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T20:10:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2832466</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3635" sha1="o51odx4h4jj260z2fz4ziwbjd1i2z93" xml:space="preserve">[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Examples of contextualized vs decontextualized time]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Earth_Gravity_Calculator.html Earth Gravity Calculator 

'''Figure 6c''' lists selected modern time units categorized by their relationship to physical phenomena. Red entries represent contextual units tied to irregular astronomical conditions. Black entries denote decontextualized units that emulate the average value of their contextual counterparts. Blue entries identify synchronized units that use &quot;leaps&quot; to align with the unpredictable duration of contextual time.

Unlike synchronized units (blue), Bully timestamps do not require &quot;leaps&quot; because they are entirely decontextualized from astronomical events. Traditional calendars use leap seconds and leap years to force a fixed counting system to stay aligned with the Earth's irregular rotation and orbit. Because Bully units prioritize a consistent, linear count of SI seconds over astronomical alignment, there is no &quot;drift&quot; to correct. A new Bully timestamp is realized every 3055 SI seconds, regardless of whether the Earth’s rotation has slowed or where the planet is in its orbital path.

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;

|+ '''Figure 6c''': Selected modern time units categorized by contextualization
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;width:20%;&quot; | Time Unit
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;width:15%;&quot; | Type
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Definition / Basis

|- style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f0;&quot;
| '''Solar second'''
| style=&quot;color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Contextual
| The 86,400th part of a solar day. Varies daily as Earth's rotation speed fluctuates.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f0;&quot;
| '''Sidereal day'''
| style=&quot;color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Contextual
| One 360° Earth rotation relative to stars (~23h 56m 4.1s). Changes based on Earth's rotational irregularities.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #fff0f0;&quot;
| '''Solar Year (Tropical)'''
| style=&quot;color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Contextual
| Time for the Sun to return to the same equinox position (~365.2422 solar days).

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''SI second'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| The duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation from the cesium-133 atom. The fundamental &quot;fixed&quot; unit.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''SI minute / hour'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| Fixed intervals of 60 and 3,600 SI seconds, respectively.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''Bully timestamp units'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| Time unit based strictly on SI seconds. They maintain a linear count independent of Earth's rotation or orbit.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| '''Julian year'''
| style=&quot;color:black; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Decontextualized
| Exactly 365.25 Julian days (31,557,600 SI seconds). Used as a standard astronomical constant.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f5ff;&quot;
| '''Gregorian day'''
| style=&quot;color:blue; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Synchronized
| Usually 86,400 SI seconds, but may include &quot;leap seconds&quot; to remain aligned with the Contextual Solar Day.

|- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f5ff;&quot;
| '''Gregorian leap year'''
| style=&quot;color:blue; font-weight:bold;&quot; | Synchronized
| A 366-day interval used to keep the Gregorian calendar synchronized with the Solar (Tropical) year.
|}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Just sustainability transitions: a living review</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832423</id>
      <parentid>2832395</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T12:13:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeanne Noiraud</username>
        <id>1366702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Knowledge modelling in Wikidata : second round of analysis */ describing modelling process</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="126365" sha1="0862186515fy4x9aeawm9lm2xbou2kq" xml:space="preserve">== Acknowledgements ==

=== Contributors ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Name
!Affiliation
!ORCID
!Contribution
|-
|Adélie Ranville
|IAE de Grenoble, CERAG lab (https://ror.org/0509qp208)
|https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3993-6135
|Research design, database search, article screening, knowledge modelling, article writing
|-
|Amélie E. Pereira
|Laboratoire DICEN IDF
|https://orcid.org/0009-0005-5928-5586
|Meta-data enrichement, article writing
|-
|Finn Nielsen
|Technical University of Denmark
|https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6128-3356
|Data visualisation
|}
Contribution statistics are visible here : https://xtools.wmcloud.org/pageinfo/en.wikiversity.org/Just_sustainability_transitions:_a_living_review

== Introduction ==
Just sustainability transition refers to the process of shifting towards sustainable practices in a way that is equitable and inclusive. It includes dimensions of procedural, recognition, distributive and reparative justice and the concept is related to climate justice, environmental justice and energy justice&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-89460-3|editor-last=Heffron|editor-first=Raphael J.|location=Cham|pages=9–19|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-89460-3_2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421518302301|journal=Energy Policy|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.014|issn=0301-4215}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The study of sustainability transitions in social sciences requires dynamic and adaptive research synthesis methods. Sustainability transitions involve complex, multi-level processes influenced by technological, economic, social, and policy factors&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2020-03-01|title=Micro-foundations of the multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions: Developing a multi-dimensional model of agency through crossovers between social constructivism, evolutionary economics and neo-institutional theory|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040162518316111|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=152|pages=119894|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2019.119894|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2023-08-01|title=A socio-technical transition perspective on positive tipping points in climate change mitigation: Analysing seven interacting feedback loops in offshore wind and electric vehicles acceleration|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162523003244|journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change|language=en-US|volume=193|pages=122639|doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122639|issn=0040-1625}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sovacool|first=Benjamin K.|last2=Geels|first2=Frank W.|last3=Andersen|first3=Allan Dahl|last4=Grubb|first4=Michael|last5=Jordan|first5=Andrew J.|last6=Kern|first6=Florian|last7=Kivimaa|first7=Paula|last8=Lockwood|first8=Matthew|last9=Markard|first9=Jochen|date=2025-03-01|title=The acceleration of low-carbon transitions: Insights, concepts, challenges, and new directions for research|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214629625000295|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=121|pages=103948|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2025.103948|issn=2214-6296}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Given the rapidly evolving nature of sustainability-related research, static literature reviews often become outdated, limiting their usefulness for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners. A living literature review – continuously updated with new findings – ensures that emerging insights, case studies, and theoretical developments are integrated cumulatively into the knowledge base. Developing such review will answer the call for more evidence-based practices in management sciences&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kepes|first=Sven|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew A.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Michael A.|date=2014-09|title=Evidence-Based Management and the Trustworthiness of Our Cumulative Scientific Knowledge: Implications for Teaching, Research, and Practice|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2013.0193|journal=Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education|volume=13|issue=3|pages=446–466|doi=10.5465/amle.2013.0193|issn=1537-260X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pfeffer, J., &amp; Sutton, R. I. (2006). Evidence-Based Management. Harvard Business Review, 13. &lt;/ref&gt;. Our project assesses the potential of Wikidata to build living review workflow on sustainability transition. We address three issues encountered by scientists: information overload, knowledge synthesis and results dissemination.

=== The problem of academic information overload ===
Global scientific output is quickly growing&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Bornmann|first=Lutz|last2=Mutz|first2=Rüdiger|date=2015|title=Growth rates of modern science: A bibliometric analysis based on the number of publications and cited references|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/asi.23329|journal=Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology|language=en|volume=66|issue=11|pages=2215–2222|doi=10.1002/asi.23329|issn=2330-1643}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hanson|first=Mark A.|last2=Barreiro|first2=Pablo Gómez|last3=Crosetto|first3=Paolo|last4=Brockington|first4=Dan|date=2024-11-01|title=The strain on scientific publishing|url=https://doi.org/10.1162/qss_a_00327|journal=Quantitative Science Studies|volume=5|issue=4|pages=823–843|doi=10.1162/qss_a_00327|issn=2641-3337}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.nature.com/news/2014/05/global-scientific-output-doubles-every-nine-years.html|title=Global scientific output doubles every nine years : News blog|website=blogs.nature.com|language=en-US|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;, pushed by the “publish or perish” model incentivizing researchers to increase the quantity of research outputs. Researchers are subject to information overload as the number of publications to read is beyond what a human brain can handle, they are expected to produce high-quality research under an increasing time pressure&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt;. This intensification of academic work is being denounced as detrimental to the deep cognitive process needed to actually produce interesting knowledge&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hartman|first=Yvonne|last2=Darab|first2=Sandy|date=2012-01-01|title=A Call for Slow Scholarship: A Case Study on the Intensification of Academic Life and Its Implications for Pedagogy|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|journal=Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies|volume=34|issue=1-2|pages=49–60|doi=10.1080/10714413.2012.643740|issn=1071-4413}}&lt;/ref&gt;. “Wikifying science” may in this context contribute to facilitating researcher’s work while preserving scientific quality. That is why in this project, we aim to build a searchable academic publication database with enriched meta-data that will allow scholars to navigate the existing publications corpus related to just sustainability transition more easily.

=== The problem of knowledge synthesis ===
The volume of academic production is rendering knowledge synthesis difficult. Scholars have thus called for making literature reviews cumulative and updatable&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Day 2 {{!}} Arnaud Vaganay: Reproducible Literature Reviews|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nspd_1cx9kc|date=2017-10-19|accessdate=2026-06-23|last=Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences (BITSS)}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=L.|first=Mobley, David|last2=M.|first2=Zuckerman, Daniel|date=2015-02-03|title=A proposal for regularly updated review/survey articles: &quot;Perpetual Reviews&quot;|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/1502.01329|journal=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.1502.01329}}&lt;/ref&gt; and for shifting from static text format publications to dynamic knowledge mapping&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/|title=The death of the literature review and the rise of the dynamic knowledge map - LSE Impact|last=Taster|date=2019-05-14|website=LSE Impact - Understanding impact and practice in academic research|access-date=2026-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This call is being answered through the development of living literature reviews that can be updated dynamically with new knowledge (examples : &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Elliott|first=Julian H.|last2=Synnot|first2=Anneliese|last3=Turner|first3=Tari|last4=Simmonds|first4=Mark|last5=Akl|first5=Elie A.|last6=McDonald|first6=Steve|last7=Salanti|first7=Georgia|last8=Meerpohl|first8=Joerg|last9=MacLehose|first9=Harriet|date=2017-11|title=Living systematic review: 1. Introduction—the why, what, when, and how|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435617306364|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=91|pages=23–30|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.010|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Uttley|first=Lesley|last2=Quintana|first2=Daniel S.|last3=Montgomery|first3=Paul|last4=Carroll|first4=Christopher|last5=Page|first5=Matthew J.|last6=Falzon|first6=Louise|last7=Sutton|first7=Anthea|last8=Moher|first8=David|date=2023-04|title=The problems with systematic reviews: a living systematic review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0895435623000112|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology|volume=156|pages=30–41|doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2023.01.011|issn=0895-4356}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While such reviews method exist for quantitative research producing standardized results, they are not adapted to synthetize social science studies on sustainability transitions that involve diverse methodologies and various disciplinary perspectives. The goal of the project is to propose a demonstration of a living review method for social science findings on just sustainability transition, relying on the collaborative model and tools of Wikimedia projects notably Wikidata, Wikiversity and Wikipedia.

=== The problem of scientific results dissemination ===
There is urgent need to disseminate knowledge on impactful topics like sustainability transition while proprietary publication models, disinformation and censorship (e.g. US) is threatening access to free and reliable knowledge. In parallel, social scientists struggle to make their work impactful&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Haley|first=Usha C. V.|date=2023-09-01|title=Triviality and the Search for Scholarly Impact|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406231175292|journal=Organization Studies|language=EN|volume=44|issue=9|pages=1547–1550|doi=10.1177/01708406231175292|issn=0170-8406}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikipedia is a key knowledge dissemination platform widely used by students&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sunvy|first=Ahmed Shafkat|last2=Reza|first2=Raiyan Bin|date=2023-04-12|title=Students’ Perception of Wikipedia as an Academic Information Source|url=https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/IJERR/article/view/57572|journal=Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review|volume=6|issue=1|pages=134–147|doi=10.23887/ijerr.v6i1.57572|issn=2621-8984}}&lt;/ref&gt; and scientists themselves, as shown by the fact that articles used as sources on Wikipedia are more cited in the literature&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Neil|last2=Hanley|first2=Douglas|date=2017|title=Science Is Shaped by Wikipedia: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial|url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3039505|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3039505|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; and that some scholars cite directly Wikipedia&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Dooley|first=Patricia L.|date=2010-07-07|title=Wikipedia and the two-faced professoriate|url=https://doi.org/10.1145/1832772.1832803|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Wikis and Open Collaboration|series=WikiSym '10|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/1832772.1832803|isbn=978-1-4503-0056-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, scientists do not naturally contribute to wikimedia projects as part of their work because of lack of incentives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chen|first=Yan|last2=Farzan|first2=Rosta|last3=Kraut|first3=Robert|last4=YeckehZaare|first4=Iman|last5=Zhang|first5=Ark Fangzhou|date=2024-05|title=Motivating Experts to Contribute to Digital Public Goods: A Personalized Field Experiment on Wikipedia|url=https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|journal=Management Science|volume=70|issue=5|pages=3264–3280|doi=10.1287/mnsc.2023.4852|issn=0025-1909}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Kincaid|first=Dustin W.|last2=Beck|first2=Whitney S.|last3=Brandt|first3=Jessica E.|last4=Mars Brisbin|first4=Margaret|last5=Farrell|first5=Kaitlin J.|last6=Hondula|first6=Kelly L.|last7=Larson|first7=Erin I.|last8=Shogren|first8=Arial J.|date=2021|title=Wikipedia can help resolve information inequality in the aquatic sciences|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lol2.10168|journal=Limnology and Oceanography Letters|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=18–23|doi=10.1002/lol2.10168|issn=2378-2242}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but also other factors such as lack of time, lack of recognition and fit with scholarly workflow&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taraborelli, D., Mietchen, D., Alevizou, P., &amp; Gill, A. (2011, August). Expert participation on Wikipedia: Barriers and opportunities. Wikimania 2011, Haifa, Israel. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Expert_Participation_Survey_-_Wikimania_2011.pdf&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/ref&gt;. In addition, expert participation is not immune to the gender gap&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;. Because of gender segregation in disciplines&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ceci|first=Stephen J.|last2=Ginther|first2=Donna K.|last3=Kahn|first3=Shulamit|last4=Williams|first4=Wendy M.|date=2014-12-01|title=Women in Academic Science: A Changing Landscape|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|language=EN|volume=15|issue=3|pages=75–141|doi=10.1177/1529100614541236|issn=1529-1006}}&lt;/ref&gt;, this may be detrimental to the content coverage on “female” topics&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lam|first=Shyong (Tony) K.|last2=Uduwage|first2=Anuradha|last3=Dong|first3=Zhenhua|last4=Sen|first4=Shilad|last5=Musicant|first5=David R.|last6=Terveen|first6=Loren|last7=Riedl|first7=John|date=2011-10-03|title=WP:clubhouse?: an exploration of Wikipedia's gender imbalance|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2038558.2038560|language=en|publisher=ACM|pages=1–10|doi=10.1145/2038558.2038560|isbn=978-1-4503-0909-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;, notably for social science in which women are more present. Our project proposes to improve expert contribution by making wikimedia projects (notably wikidata) useful tools that can facilitate research work, in addition to a key knowledge dissemination platform that is not country or institution-dependent. We propose to approach Wikimedia projects as a powerful (and free) knowledge management infrastructure that researchers could use. The Wikimedia ecosystem offers solutions that have strong potential to put open science principles into practices, including [[wikipedia:FAIR_data|FAIR]] principles and [[wikipedia:Linked_data#Linked_open_data|linked open data]].  

== Toward a living review on just sustainability transition ==

=== Just sustainability transition ===
Just sustainability transition transition is &quot;a fair and equitable process of moving towards a post-carbon society&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCauley|first=Darren|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|date=2018-08-01|title=Just transition: Integrating climate, energy and environmental justice|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129947262|journal=Energy Policy|language=English|volume=119|pages=1–7|doi=10.1016/J.ENPOL.2018.04.014}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The concept of just transition originated from global trade unions in the 1980s to promote green jobs creation as a key element of sustainability transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. However, scholars have broadened the use of this term to develop frameworks for analysing issues of fairness in these transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;. The concept of just transition can be used to bridge various bodies of scholarship : climate justice, environmental justiceand energy justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Xinxin|last2=Lo|first2=Kevin|date=2021-12-01|title=Just transition: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137209041|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=82|pages=102291|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102291}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545572|title=What is the “Just Transition”?|last=Heffron|first=Raphael J.|date=2021-01-01|pages=9–19|language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; and take into account various aspects of justice including distributional justice, procedural justice, restorative justice, recognition justice&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Developping living reviews seem particularly relevant for the just transition literature: first, modeling knowledge and building graphs allows to take into account the complexity of sustainability transitions which involve multiple levels of analysis&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; and fragmented results coming from various disciplines&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Then, making literature reviews &quot;living&quot; would allow researchers to be less subject to information overload through a more systematic accumulation of knowledge. Finally, conducting this review with an open science philosophy aswers the challenge of knowledge dissemination, which is crucial in a context of socio-ecological emergency when decision-makers need to rapidely access reliable information on possible sustainability transition trajectories.  

=== Living reviews ===
The concept of living systematic reviews is recent (2014), so the definition has been regularly reworked&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot;&gt;{{Cite Q |Q40040379 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Living systematic reviews complement the older concept of [[literature review]]. Its objective is the same : obtain an accurate overview of the state of scientific knowledge on a subject&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Akl |first=Elie A. |last2=Meerpohl |first2=Joerg J. |last3=Elliott |first3=Julian |last4=Kahale |first4=Lara A. |last5=Schünemann |first5=Holger J. |last6=Agoritsas |first6=Thomas |last7=Hilton |first7=John |last8=Perron |first8=Caroline |last9=Akl |first9=Elie |last10=Hodder |first10=Rebecca |last11=Pestridge |first11=Charlotte |last12=Albrecht |first12=Lauren |last13=Horsley |first13=Tanya |last14=Platt |first14=Joanne |last15=Armstrong |first15=Rebecca |date=2017-11 |title=Living systematic reviews: 4. Living guideline recommendations |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50084143 |journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=91 |pages=47–53 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2017.08.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Citation|title=Living Systematic Reviews|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|publisher=Springer US|work=Meta-Research: Methods and Protocols|date=2022|access-date=2026-01-16|place=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-0716-1566-9|pages=121–134|doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-1566-9_7|language=en|first=Mark|last=Simmonds|first2=Julian H.|last2=Elliott|first3=Anneliese|last3=Synnot|first4=Tari|last4=Turner|editor-first=Evangelos|editor-last=Evangelou|editor2-first=Areti Angeliki|editor2-last=Veroniki}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A traditional review may be obsolete by the time it is published, as new studies have emerged between the submission of the manuscript and its publication&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;. Living systematic reviews exists to address this common problem&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Why4&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2019/05/14/the-death-of-the-literature-review-and-the-rise-of-the-dynamic-knowledge-map/&lt;/ref&gt;. It is therefore particularly useful in rapidly evolving fields of research&lt;ref name=&quot;Why1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;, such as just transition. Literature review methods are currently evolving with new technological possibilities. Generative artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT are expected to have a strong influence on literature review activities&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Krlev|first=Gorgi|last2=Hannigan|first2=Tim|last3=Spicer|first3=André|date=2025-01|title=What Makes a Good Review Article? Empirical Evidence From Management and Organization Research|url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/annals.2021.0051|journal=Academy of Management Annals|volume=19|issue=1|pages=376–403|doi=10.5465/annals.2021.0051|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Advances in AI could render certain older methodological types of living systematic reviews obsoletes&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt;, as IA are useful to extract, filter and classify datas&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.20276v1|title=Enhancing Systematic Reviews with Large Language Models: Using GPT-4 and Kimi|last=Kaptur|first=Dandan Chen|last2=Huang|first2=Yue|date=2025-04-28|website=arXiv.org|language=en|doi=10.48550/arXiv.2504.20276|access-date=2026-01-21|last3=Ji|first3=Xuejun Ryan|last4=Guo|first4=Yanhui|last5=Kaptur|first5=Bradley}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Large language models]] (LLM) are &quot;on the rise&quot; (2025), but not yet integrated into tested and validated methodologies&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Lieberum |first=Judith-Lisa |last2=Toews |first2=Markus |last3=Metzendorf |first3=Maria-Inti |last4=Heilmeyer |first4=Felix |last5=Siemens |first5=Waldemar |last6=Haverkamp |first6=Christian |last7=Böhringer |first7=Daniel |last8=Meerpohl |first8=Joerg J. |last9=Eisele-Metzger |first9=Angelika |date=2025-05 |title=Large language models for conducting systematic reviews: on the rise, but not yet ready for use—a scoping review |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q134545593|journal=Journal of Clinical Epidemiology |language=en |volume=181 |pages=111746 |doi=10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111746}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Human validation stays notably necessary&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Alshami|first=Ahmad|last2=Elsayed|first2=Moustafa|last3=Ali|first3=Eslam|last4=Eltoukhy|first4=Abdelrahman E. E.|last5=Zayed|first5=Tarek|date=2023-07-09|title=Harnessing the Power of ChatGPT for Automating Systematic Review Process: Methodology, Case Study, Limitations, and Future Directions|url=https://www.mdpi.com/2079-8954/11/7/351|journal=Systems|language=en|volume=11|issue=7|pages=351|doi=10.3390/systems11070351|issn=2079-8954}}&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt;. While AI can appear as a solution for scaling literature reviews, we are in the present project exploring another possible scenario which is to use more crowdsourcing in the literature review process.

=== Wikimedia projects ===
Wikipedia is a successfull example of large-scaled crowdsourcing of reliable knowledge synthesis. That is why this project proposes to explore the potential of the Wikimedia ecosystem for conducting living reviews. Since Wikipedia does aim to host original research&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikipedia:No original research|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:No_original_research&amp;oldid=1360514388|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we are working on two sister projects : Wikidata and Wikiversity. As its name suggests (wiki and data), [[wikipedia:Wikidata|Wikidata]] is, like Wikipedia, a collaborative project based on wiki editing technology; however, unlike the online encyclopaedia, it contains data rather than articles. Whilst there is a separate Wikipedia for each language version, there is only one Wikidata, containing items organised using unique identifiers. What matters when organising information in Wikidata is not the words used to define each concept, but the concept itself. Wikidata is a [[Databases|database]], more precisely a knowledge base, and a &quot;collaboratively edited multilingual knowledge graph hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Chalabi|first=Mona|date=April 26, 2013|title=Welcome to Wikidata! Now what?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|access-date=October 2, 2021|archive-date=2 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211002152920/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/apr/26/wikidata-launch|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-21|title=Wikidata|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikidata&amp;oldid=1360462340|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;A [[wikidata:Q33002955|knowledge graph]] is a structured representation of knowledge that captures information in a machine-readable format.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hogan|first=Aidan|last2=Blomqvist|first2=Eva|last3=Cochez|first3=Michael|last4=D’amato|first4=Claudia|last5=Melo|first5=Gerard De|last6=Gutierrez|first6=Claudio|last7=Kirrane|first7=Sabrina|last8=Gayo|first8=José Emilio Labra|last9=Navigli|first9=Roberto|date=2022-05-31|title=Knowledge Graphs|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3447772|journal=ACM Computing Surveys|language=en|volume=54|issue=4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1145/3447772|issn=0360-0300}}&lt;/ref&gt; A knowledge graph consists of a graph or network of interconnected data points, where each data point represents a piece of information or a concept, and the relationships between them are explicitly defined. Knowledge graphs organize and store data in a format that facilitates information retrieval, data analysis, and reasoning.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Meijer|first=David|last2=Beniddir|first2=Mehdi A.|last3=Coley|first3=Connor W.|last4=Mejri|first4=Yassine M.|last5=Öztürk|first5=Meltem|last6=Hooft|first6=Justin J. J. van der|last7=Medema|first7=Marnix H.|last8=Skiredj|first8=Adam|date=2025-04-16|title=Empowering natural product science with AI: leveraging multimodal data and knowledge graphs|url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/np/d4np00008k|journal=Natural Product Reports|language=en|volume=42|issue=4|pages=654–662|doi=10.1039/D4NP00008K|issn=1460-4752}}&lt;/ref&gt; Such graphs have a strong potential to conduct knowledge synthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fotopoulou&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Eleni |last1=Fotopoulou|first2=Ioanna|last2=Mandilara|first3=Anastasios|last3=Zafeiropoulos|first4=Chrysi|last4=Laspidou|first5=Giannis |last5=Adamos|first6=Phoebe|last6=Koundouri|first7=Symeon|last7=Papavassiliou|title=SustainGraph: A knowledge graph for tracking the progress and the interlinking among the sustainable development goals’ targets|journal=Frontiers in environmental science, Frontiers|volume=10|date=2022-10-26|issn=2296-665X|doi=10.3389/FENVS.2022.1003599|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117837999}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;. They are especially usefull to build the ontologies (formal representations of concepts) that are necessary to organize and represent existing knowledge&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Spadaro|first=Giuliana|last2=Tiddi|first2=Ilaria|last3=Columbus|first3=Simon|last4=Jin|first4=Shuxian|last5=ten Teije|first5=Annette|last6=Balliet|first6=Daniel|date=2022-09-01|title=The Cooperation Databank: Machine-Readable Science Accelerates Research Synthesis|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211053319|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=EN|volume=17|issue=5|pages=1472–1489|doi=10.1177/17456916211053319|issn=1745-6916|pmc=9442633|pmid=35580271}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

Wikidata is a unique project, designed from the outset for multilingual use&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|first1=Denny|last1=Vrandečić|first2=Markus|last2=Krötzsch|title=Wikidata: a free collaborative knowledgebase|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=57|issue=10|pages=78–85|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|date=2014-09-23|issn=0001-0782|doi=10.1145/2629489|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2629489}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Structuring the data in the form of RDF triples enables a multilingual understanding of the information, provided that their metadata (the ‘label’ and ‘description’ fields) are also translated&lt;ref name=&quot;:25&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zangerle|first=Eva|last2=Gassler|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Pichl|first3=Martin|last4=Steinhauser|first4=Stefan|last5=Specht|first5=Günther|date=2016-08-17|title=An Empirical Evaluation of Property Recommender Systems for Wikidata and Collaborative Knowledge Bases|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2957792.2957804|journal=Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Open Collaboration|series=OpenSym '16|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|volume=18|pages=1–8|doi=10.1145/2957792.2957804|isbn=978-1-4503-4451-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Each Wikidata element in fact comprises a box linking a label (the common term used to refer to the element in each language) to a descrition. Integration into WD is based on adherence to the five principles of linked open data (available on the web, under a free licence, in RDF format, with a unique, identifiable URL for each item, and linked to other data sources), under a CC0 licence, which places the data in the public domain. 

The use of a unique identifier is a cornerstone of linked open data&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Blaney|first=Jonathan|date=2017-05-07|editor-last=Crymble|editor-first=Adam|others=Terhi Nurmikko-Fuller, Matthew Lincoln|title=Introduction to the Principles of Linked Open Data|url=https://programminghistorian.org/en/lessons/intro-to-linked-data|journal=Programming Historian|language=en|issue=6|doi=10.46430/phen0068|issn=2397-2068}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Indeed, in order to link two databases or knowledge bases together, it is necessary to use an identifier that is both unique to a record or a concept and common to both databases, so as to enable data sharing. This identifier is generally derived from an authority source. 

In complement to using Wikidata to model knowledge, we decided to use Wikiversity to report and write our research results. [[wikipedia:Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] is another Wikimedia project hosting pedagogical content, original research, and even a publishing house ([[WikiJournal|WikiJournals]])&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-09|title=Wikiversity|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiversity&amp;oldid=1358552930|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Like all Wikimedia projects, Wikiversity is editable by everyone, have a discussion tab and a history log tab.

=== Use of Wikidata and Wikiversity for research ===
A review specifically focusing on the uses of Wikidata in digital humanities projects was carried out by Fudie Zhao in 2022&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Fudie|date=2023-06-01|title=A systematic review of Wikidata in Digital Humanities projects|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqac083|journal=Digital Scholarship in the Humanities|volume=38|issue=2|pages=852–874|doi=10.1093/llc/fqac083|issn=2055-7671}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It concluded that WD is used as a content provider, a platform and a technology stack. More specifically, these uses include the implementation of data annotation and enrichment, metadata curation, knowledge modelling and named entity recognition.

Applications in the life sciences were analysed by Waagmeester et al. in 2019, who highlighted its alignment with the FAIR principles as one of its key strengths for this purpose&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Waagmeester|first=Andra|last2=Stupp|first2=Gregory|last3=Burgstaller-Muehlbacher|first3=Sebastian|last4=Good|first4=Benjamin M|last5=Griffith|first5=Malachi|last6=Griffith|first6=Obi L|last7=Hanspers|first7=Kristina|last8=Hermjakob|first8=Henning|last9=Hudson|first9=Toby S|date=2020-03-17|title=Wikidata as a knowledge graph for the life sciences|url=https://elifesciences.org/articles/52614|journal=eLife|language=en|volume=9|doi=10.7554/eLife.52614|issn=2050-084X|pmc=7077981|pmid=32180547}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In this field, WD has been enriched with content from authoritative public sources on genes, proteins and chemical compounds. WD is also used in the social sciences and in artificial intelligence research&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vrandečić|first=Denny|last2=Pintscher|first2=Lydia|last3=Krötzsch|first3=Markus|date=2023-04-30|title=Wikidata: The Making Of|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3543873.3585579|journal=Companion Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2023|series=WWW '23 Companion|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=615–624|doi=10.1145/3543873.3585579|isbn=978-1-4503-9419-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Research question and hypothesis ==
Our research question is : '''How can Wikimedia projects contribute to building a collaborative living review on just sustainability transition ?'''

In this project, we aim to test 4 hypothesis : 

● '''Hypothesis 1:''' Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations.

● '''Hypothesis 2:''' Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (e.g. conceptual typologies, cause-effect chains…).

● '''Hypothesis 3:''' SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs.

● '''Hypothesis 4''': Wikimedia or Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links (following the ideal of linked open data).

We also have 2 assumptions :

● '''Assumption 1:''' Wikimedia projects have to be integrated into validated scientific protocols in order to be a valuable research tool.

● '''Assumption 2:''' Wikimedia project contribution has to be made interoperable with tools, methods and data types already used by researchers.
== Methodology ==
Our study rely on a meta-review, that is a review of existing literature reviews. Data presented in literature reviews are usually presented as tables or diagrams, and sometimes provided as supplementary materials in publications. However, these data are not made interoperable and are not used to update prior literature reviews. Our goal was to synthesize results of previous literature reviews by making their findings compatible with linked open data and open science standards using Wikidata, Wikiversity, and other open-science infrastructures. The first step was to build and enrich the bibliographic metadata of a corpus of articles we selected into Wikidata. The second step was to model the content  of these articles in Wikidata (e.g. typologies, causes-effects relationships...). The third step was to experiment relevant visualization of this content (e.g. causes-effects graphs). The las step was to write our report on a Wikiversity page, including links to our knowledge graph, following a linked open data philosophy.

== 1. Building an academic corpus and enriching bibliographic metadata ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations). To do so we imported academic references into Wikidata, and explored the advantages of constituting a scholarly corpus on Wikidata in comparison (or in complementarity) to existing tools used by researchers such as reference management softwares and knowledge management softwares. Reference management software (Zenodo, Mendeley…) are used to collect scientific item metadata and integrate them into academic writing. They can also be used to analyze and annotate academic articles and can include export functions making the data interoperable with other analysis tools. Knowledge management software (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…) are used by some researchers to organize their ideas. To build and enrich our academic corpus on Wikidata, we searched existing databases, selected the sample of articles we wanted to study, imported these articles metadata into Wikidata, enriched these metadata and finally reflected on the advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich academic corpus.

=== Database search ===
Doing a systematic review on all aspects of just transition would have resulted in too many articles to review. We thus decided to first explore one aspect of justice : procedural justice. Procedural justice is about the fairness of decision-making processes related to transitions&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; such as the inclusion of those impacted by these decisions&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Stark|first=Anthony|last2=Gale|first2=Fred|last3=Murphy-Gregory|first3=Hannah|date=2023-05-05|title=Just Transitions’ Meanings: A Systematic Review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210229|journal=Society and Natural Resources|volume=36|issue=10|pages=1277–1297|doi=10.1080/08941920.2023.2207166}}&lt;/ref&gt; (e.g. the participation of affected communities in decisions related to the construction of new infrastructures&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;). Procedural justice can include issues of community and citizen participation in decision making, their political representation, their consultation, or the integration of their knowledge, with a focus on neglected population (indigenous people, women, gender and ethnic minorities)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Jenkins|first=Kirsten|last2=McCauley|first2=Darren|last3=Heffron|first3=Raphael|last4=Stephan|first4=Hannes|last5=Rehner|first5=Robert|date=2016-01-01|title=Energy justice: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137210566|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=11|pages=174–182|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. For our search, we selected keywords related to procedural justice (procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory) and keywords related to sustainability transition (sustainability OR energy OR climate) AND (transition OR transitions).

We conducted preliminary searches in various databases including Web of science, Go Triple, Dimensions and OpenAlex. Web of Science was the database offering the most relevant restults and included the possibility to filter results to display only litterature reviews. Articles metadata were exported (in .ris format) and then imported into the reference manager software Zotero. 
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Keywords search
!Database
!Search date
!Filters
!Number of results
|-
|(((TS=(procedural justice OR procedural fairness OR democracy OR participation OR participatory)) AND TS=(sustainability OR energy OR climate)) AND TS=(transition OR transitions)) AND TS=(review OR reviews) 
|Web of Science (all databases, all dates)
|December 2025
|Document type: Review Article
|362
|}

=== Article selection ===
Articles abstract were then screened and we selected only articles which were litterature reviews focusing on concepts related to procedural justice as their main topics. We excluded article which were : 

* Not related to sustainability transition (e.g. sustainable shift in..., hard science papers...)
* Not literature reviews (e.g. review of policies/initiatives/cases, review notes, book review...)
* Not related to procedural justice but to participation into markets, participation in eco-friendly behaviors 
* Including justice consideration only in “future research” suggestions
* Discussing participatory research methodologies (e.g. participatory modelling) without approaching it as an issue of justice, power or democracy
* Discussing procedural justice concepts as key variables or key results without it being the main focus of the paper
The files with the lists of included and excluded articles are available on the archive plateform Zenodo : https://zenodo.org/records/20749974

=== Importing selected articles into Wikidata ===
Before importing the selected articles meta-data into Wikidata, we first ran [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 a script] to check if any article was already present in Wikidata. Next, we used [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/90acdc3eac4109830db1b3ab855fcb24 another script] that checks the ISSN of the publication in Wikidata and add P-Q-pairs in the extra field of Zotero. Then we exported the articles data using the &quot;export to Wikidata QuickStatements&quot; function of Zotero and use the QuickStatements tool to add them to Wikidata.

Next we used the [[wikidata:Wikidata:Zotero/Cita|Cita]] (V1.0.0-beta.17) Zotero add-on to add articles QID in Zotero. At this point we identified that duplicates had been created in Wikidata (possibly because the initial [https://gist.github.com/zuphilip/aa9f59271fcb0807fb20c7d0110d26e4 script] did not work that well  because of the recent [[wikidata:Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split|Graph Split]] on Wikidata). We merged duplicates on wikidata using the [[wikidata:Help:Merge|&quot;Merge&quot; gadget]] on Wikidata. We checked manually for duplicated statments in those items.

=== Article classification through metadata enrichement ===
Metadatas are data describing other data. The metadata of academic items usually include title, author, publication outlet, publication date, pages, DOI, URL... and can be structured following specific standards (e.g. [[wikipedia:Dublin_Core|Dublin Core]]). In academic databases such as WOS or OpenAlex, the only metadata available regarding the content of an academic article are the abstract and sometimes keywords. However, researchers conducting literature reviews need more precise informations. An important part of literature review work can thus be about describing what the articles are about. For example, describing industry focus, academic discipline, geography of research sites (countries), stakeholder focus (community, consumer, worker...), type of study (case study, theory development) or methodology (quantitative, qualitative, mixt) (e.g. &lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;). 

By metadata enrichment, we mean completing metadata to include additional information about the content of an academic piece. In Wikidata, each type of information is added using a specific property. A property is the edge that links two entities in the Wikidata knowledge graph. We selected three Wikidata properties to describe the content of our selected articles : {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} to describe what the article is about, {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} to describe its main methodology/research design and {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe the geographical scope of the study. We also worked on adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} ====
We first read the articles abstracts and listed relevant topics and their Wikidata ID in a shared spreadsheet. These topics were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Main topic
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q42377797|Q42377797]]
|acceptability
|characteristic of a thing being subject to acceptance for some purpose
|-
|[[d:Q2798912|Q2798912]]
|accountability
|concept of responsibility in ethics, governance and decision-making
|-
|[[d:Q421953|Q421953]]
|actor–network theory
|theory within social science
|-
|[[d:Q84459973|Q84459973]]
|affordability
|
|-
|[[d:Q185836|Q185836]]
|age of a person
|time elapsed since a person was born
|-
|[[d:Q4764988|Q4764988]]
|animal studies
|field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways
|-
|[[d:Q4338318|Q4338318]]
|awareness
|state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects, or sensory patterns
|-
|[[d:Q4930066|Q4930066]]
|blue carbon
|carbon captured by the world's coastal ocean ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q430460|Q430460]]
|capability approach
|economic theory
|-
|[[d:Q7569|Q7569]]
|child
|human between birth and puberty
|-
|[[d:Q4116870|Q4116870]]
|civic engagement
|individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern
|-
|[[d:Q125928|Q125928]]
|climate change
|human-caused changes to climate on Earth
|-
|[[d:Q260607|Q260607]]
|climate change 
adaptation
|process of adjustment to actual or expected climate change and its effects, seeking to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities
|-
|[[d:Q1291678|Q1291678]]
|climate justice
|term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice
|-
|[[d:Q2270945|Q2270945]]
|co-creation
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q16972712|Q16972712]]
|co-design
|approach to design attempting to actively involve all stakeholders
|-
|[[d:Q16324410|Q16324410]]
|coproduction
|product or service design process in which input from consumers plays a central role
|-
|[[d:Q11024|Q11024]]
|communication
|act of conveying intended meaning
|-
|[[d:Q177634|Q177634]]
|community
|social unit of human organisms who share common values
|-
|[[d:Q5154673|Q5154673]]
|community choice aggregation
|alternative energy supply system
|-
|[[d:Q113514984|Q113514984]]
|community energy
|delivery of community-led renewable energy, energy demand reduction and energy supply projects
|-
|[[d:Q65807646|Q65807646]]
|community participation
|The taking part by members of a community in decisionmaking processes related to the development of their community
|-
|[[d:Q188843|Q188843]]
|cosmopolitanism
|ideology that all human beings belong to a single community, based on a shared morality
|-
|[[d:Q11693783|Q11693783]]
|decarbonization
|change of economy, especially of energy industries, towards lower carbon dioxide emissions
|-
|[[d:Q284289|Q284289]]
|deliberative democracy
|form of democracy focusing on consensus
|-
|[[d:Q7174|Q7174]]
|democracy
|form of government
|-
|[[d:Q552284|Q552284]]
|distributive justice
|concept of the socially just allocation of goods
|-
|[[d:Q1230584|Q1230584]]
|diversity
|concept in sociology and political studies
|-
|[[d:Q1049066|Q1049066]]
|ecological economics
|research field on the interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems
|-
|[[d:Q8134|Q8134]]
|economics
|social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
|-
|[[d:Q868575|Q868575]]
|empowerment
|providing increased autonomy
|-
|[[d:Q295865|Q295865]]
|ecosystem service
|benefits created by nature, forests and environmental systems
|-
|[[d:Q138359220|Q138359220]]
|energy citizenship
|involvement of citizens in energy-related decisions
|-
|[[d:Q16869822|Q16869822]]
|energy consumption
|amount of energy or power used
|-
|[[d:Q1358789|Q1358789]]
|senior
|elderly person
|-
|[[d:Q14944319|Q14944319]]
|energy democracy
|concept in environmental justice movement
|-
|[[d:Q192704|Q192704]]
|energy efficiency
|ratio between the useful energy output and the input of a machine
|-
|[[d:Q24965464|Q24965464]]
|energy modeling
|process of building computer models of energy systems in order to analyze them
|-
|[[d:Q1805337|Q1805337]]
|energy policy
|policy addressing energy issues
|-
|[[d:Q1341244|Q1341244]]
|energy poverty
|lack of access to modern energy services
|-
|[[d:Q3406659|Q3406659]]
|energy production
|conversion of energy from a primary source into a form useful to humans
|-
|[[d:Q117091181|Q117091181]]
|energy justice
|subconcept of economic equality
|-
|[[d:Q3456219|Q3456219]]
|energy renovation
|building works aimed at reducing energy consumption and decarbonising the energy sources used
|-
|[[d:Q2700433|Q2700433]]
|energy security
|national security considerations of energy availability
|-
|[[d:Q837718|Q837718]]
|energy storage
|capture of energy produced at one time for use at a later time
|-
|[[d:Q795757|Q795757]]
|energy transition
|long-term structural change towards sustainable energy systems
|-
|[[d:Q1479527|Q1479527]]
|environmental justice
|system of fairness
|-
|[[d:Q771773|Q771773]]
|fairness
|concept in sociology and generally the interaction of society
|-
|[[d:Q56395513|Q56395513]]
|farming system
|method of agricultural production defined by its physical practices and economic characteristics
|-
|[[d:Q5465532|Q5465532]]
|food system
|all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population
|-
|[[d:Q4421|Q4421]]
|forest
|dense collection of trees covering a relatively large area
|-
|[[d:Q48277|Q48277]]
|gender
|social concept which distinguish the different gender categories
|-
|[[d:Q1553864|Q1553864]]
|governance
|all of the processes of governing, whether undertaken by a government, market or network, whether over a family, tribe, formal or informal organization or territory and whether through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society
|-
|[[d:Q8458|Q8458]]
|human rights
|inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled
|-
|[[d:Q11376059|Q11376059]]
|human rights violation
|act or omission which contravene the principles of human rights
|-
|[[d:Q103817|Q103817]]
|indigenous people
|first inhabitants of an area and their descendants
|-
|[[d:Q113561794|Q113561794]]
|indigenous science
|indigenous knowledge applied to the scientific method
|-
|[[d:Q770480|Q770480]]
|injustice
|quality relating to unfairness or undeserved outcomes
|-
|[[d:Q17142211|Q17142211]]
|interactional justice
|the perceived appropriateness of interpersonal treatment
|-
|[[d:Q1516555|Q1516555]]
|intersectionnality
|theoretical framework of multidimensional oppression
|-
|[[d:Q6316391|Q6316391]]
|just transition
|Framework developed by the trade union movement to encompass wide range of social interventions needed to secure decent work opportunities and a greener economy.
|-
|[[d:Q366139|Q366139]]
|legitimation
|the process of making something acceptable and normative to a group
|-
|[[d:Q3027857|Q3027857]]
|living lab
|user-centered, open innovation ecosystem integrating research and innovation in real life communities
|-
|[[d:Q59679511|Q59679511]]
|low income
|home with little money
|-
|[[d:Q43619|Q43619]]
|natural environment
|all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof
|-
|[[d:Q127514833|Q127514833]]
|nature-positive
|global goal to halt and reverse nature loss by 2030
|-
|[[d:Q13023682|Q13023682]]
|non-human
|organism not in the genus Homo
|-
|[[d:Q728646|Q728646]]
|partnership
|arrangement in which parties agree to cooperate to advance their mutual interests
|-
|[[d:Q3907287|Q3907287]]
|policy making
|the act of developing policy
|-
|[[d:Q9357091|Q9357091]]
|political theory
|class of theory
|-
|[[d:Q265425|Q265425]]
|postcolonialism
|academic discipline
|-
|[[d:Q25107|Q25107]]
|power
|ability to influence the behavior of others
|-
|[[d:Q442100|Q442100]]
|procedural justice
|fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources
|-
|[[d:Q7249406|Q7249406]]
|project governance
|management framework
|-
|[[d:Q7257735|Q7257735]]
|public engagement
|Policy-making practice
|-
|[[d:Q541936|Q541936]]
|public participation
|participation of citizens in various policy decisions and planning processes
|-
|[[d:Q6142016|Q6142016]]
|recognition justice
|social philosophy theory
|-
|[[d:Q10509953|Q10509953]]
|renewable electricity
|electricity from renweable sources
|-
|[[d:Q12705|Q12705]]
|renewable energy
|energy collected from renewable resources
|-
|[[d:Q56510941|Q56510941]]
|renewable energy policy
|
|-
|[[d:Q1165392|Q1165392]]
|restorative justice
|approach to justice where victims and perpetrators mediate a restitution agreement
|-
|[[d:Q4414036|Q4414036]]
|rural population
|inhabitants of rural areas or of small towns classified as rural
|-
|[[d:Q17152351|Q17152351]]
|smart system
|adaptive intelligent systems
|-
|[[d:Q187588|Q187588]]
|social class
|group of people categorized in a hierarchy based on socioeconomic factors
|-
|[[d:Q264892|Q264892]]
|social justice
|concept that discrimination recognized in society should be remedied
|-
|[[d:Q34749|Q34749]]
|social science
|academic disciplines concerned with society and the relationships between individuals in society
|-
|[[d:Q2930198|Q2930198]]
|stakeholder participation
|involvement of groups or individuals affected by the actions of an entity
|-
|[[d:Q125359881|Q125359881]]
|sustainability transition
|
|-
|[[d:Q219416|Q219416]]
|sustainability
|ability of human civilization to coexist with the biosphere in a steady state
|-
|[[d:Q131201|Q131201]]
|sustainable development 
|mode of human development that meets current demands without compromising the needs of future generations
|-
|[[d:Q7649586|Q7649586]]
|Sustainable Development Goals
|set of United Nations-defined global development goals and climate change
|-
|[[d:Q69883|Q69883]]
|urban planning
|technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment
|-
|[[d:Q920600|Q920600]]
|urban renewal
|program of land redevelopment in cities, often where there is urban decay
|-
|[[d:Q3376054|Q3376054]]
|vulnerable population
|group of persons whose range of options is severely limited, are subjected to coercion, or who may be compromised in their ability to give informed consent
|-
|[[d:Q107389921|Q107389921]]
|water-management
|
|-
|[[d:Q7981051|Q7981051]]
|well-being
|measure of how well life is to someone or a group with factors such as health, happiness and satisfaction
|-
|[[d:Q467|Q467]]
|woman
|female adult human
|-
|[[d:Q188867|Q188867]]
|future studies
|study of possible, probable, and preferable social, technological and political futures
|-
|[[d:Q1038171|Q1038171]]
|participatory design
|active involvement of all stakeholders in the design process
|}Then, for each article, we inferred what the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} was from the abstracts and author provided keywords. 

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} ====
The sample of article we selected included only litterature reviews, but we wanted to describ what kind of literature review it was. We first read abstracts to identify all the different types of litterature reviews present in the corpus and created wikidata items which did not exist, for example {{Wikidata entity link|Q137209848}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q137174203}}. We improved some of these method items using the methodological references cited in the reviewed papers. For example, we added a statement saying that {{Wikidata entity link|Q101116078}} can have {{Wikidata entity link|Q653137}} as {{Wikidata entity link|P13391}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Paré|first=Guy|last2=Trudel|first2=Marie-Claude|last3=Jaana|first3=Mirou|last4=Kitsiou|first4=Spyros|date=2015-03|title=Synthesizing information systems knowledge: A typology of literature reviews|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378720614001116|journal=Information &amp; Management|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=183–199|doi=10.1016/j.im.2014.08.008}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After this step, the {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q2412849}} in Wikidata were : 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Qid
!Study type
!Description
|-
|[[d:Q603441|Q603441]]
|bibliometrics
|statistical analysis of written publications, such as books or articles
|-
|[[d:Q472342|Q472342]]
|scientometrics
|study of measuring and analysing science, technology and innovation
|-
|[[d:Q815382|Q815382]]
|meta-analysis
|statistical method that summarizes data from multiple sources
|-
|[[d:Q1504425|Q1504425]]
|systematic review
|publication type, study that gathers, analyzes, and communicates the results of research and information on a topic
|-
|[[d:Q2412849|Q2412849]]
|literature review
|process of information search and text of a review article (Q7318358), which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic
|-
|[[d:Q6822263|Q6822263]]
|meta-regression
|statistical tool used in meta-analyses
|-
|[[d:Q7301211|Q7301211]]
|realist evaluation
|theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes
|-
|[[d:Q17007303|Q17007303]]
|combinatorial meta-analysis 
|study of the statistical properties of combinations of studies from a meta-analytic dataset
|-
|[[d:Q70470634|Q70470634]]
|network meta-analysis
|meta-analysis of randomized trials in which estimates of comparative treatment effects are visualized and interpreted from a network of interventions
|-
|[[d:Q101116078|Q101116078]]
|scoping review
|search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q110665014]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|-
|[[d:Q137174203|Q137174203]]
|conceptual review
|academic research aiming to review existing concepts and definitions in the litterature
|-
|[[d:Q137174450|Q137174450]]
|critical review
|type of literature review analysing strenghts, major contributions, mistakes and neglected issues in an academic field of research
|-
|[[d:Q137209848|Q137209848]]
|integrative literature review
|type of literature review
|-
|[[d:Q110665014|Q137211242]]
|narrative review
|type of literature review, without structured method of retrieval and analysis
|}For each article, we added the {{Wikidata entity link|P8363}} based on the abstract and method sections. In case of doubt, we compared our interpretation.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} ====
When an article had a specific geographical focus, we used the property {{Wikidata entity link|P6153}} to describe it. For example, the article &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}&quot; focused on {{Wikidata entity link|Q132959}}.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} ====
When scholarly metadata are imported into Wikidata, the name of authors are stored as a chain of characters and linked to the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2093}}. The property {{Wikidata entity link|P50}} allows to make a link with a Wikidata item representing the author. This avoids the problem of homonym authors by linking a unique identifyer to authors in Wikidata and linking this identifier to existing ones such as ORCID. We used the [https://author-disambiguator.toolforge.org/ Author Disambiguator] tool to create Wikidata items for researchers who did not yet have one. This tool helps to minimise errors caused by homonyms among researchers by categorizing scientific publications into thematic groups. It also automatically searches for [[d:Wikidata:ORCIDator|ORCID]], ResearchGate and VIAF pages.

==== Adding {{Wikidata entity link|P6977}} ====
We explored the possibility to model review networks, that is linking review paper to reviewed papers (and not broadly cited papers). We selected one of the paper which had the most detailed list of reviewed papers ({{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}), then we added this list in Wikidata using Open refine. Then we snowballed this process for the reviewed papers which were also litterature reviews.

=== Advantages and limitations of Wikidata to build a rich living academic corpus ===
To share the result of our work, we exported the dataset we build on Wikidata and shared it on the open archive Zenodo : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20749973. The data is also available directly in Wikidata.

The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 1''' (Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations)'''.''' The sections below discuss the advantages and limitations of wikidata regarding this hypothesis.

==== Advantages of Wikidata ====
Key advantages of Wikidata are its flexible and collaborative nature as well as its interoperability. Wikidata ontology (that is how the data are structured) is collaboratively defined and properties can be added if relevant (after validation by the community). Compared to global databases like WOS or OpenAlex, Wikidata allows anyone to enter more metadata about each academic articles. Another notable advantage is that Wikidata items can be used as an interoperable [[wikipedia:Controlled_vocabulary|controlled vocabulary]]. For example, when we stated that the {{Wikidata entity link|P921}} of the article {{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}} was {{Wikidata entity link|Q795757}}, &quot;energy transition&quot; was not just a word but a concept with its unique identifyer, linked to identifiers in other databases such as the Google Knowledge Graph ID or BNCF Thesaurus ID. Wikidata's collaborative nature is here adain an advantage. Contrary to institutional thesaurus, Wikidata allows anyone to add new concepts. This is particularly interesting as existing controlled vocabularies rarely reflect the degree of precision that researchers need in their work. The multilingual nature of Wikidata was also a strengh, some Wikidata contributors added labels for the concepts we used into different languages (For example, contributors added labels for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Armenian and Slovenian, languages we do not speak at all). 

==== Limitations of Wikidata ====
The limitations of Wikidata is that it is not yet well integrated with the tools researchers use to do literature reviews (kowledge management softwares and bibliographic databases).    

Compared to reference management softwares (Zenodo, Mendeley…) and knowledge management softwares (Obsidian, Zettlr, Room Research, Notion, Logseq, Reflect…), Wikidata is too general and does not allow to work on full texts. References and knowledge management softwares allow researcher to build their own specialised knowledge base, by taking notes and highlighting the content of the full texts. Wikidata is not connected to this process and there is a missing tool to facilitate the construction of graphs from the qualitative analysis of texts. In addition, when one is working on a specific corpus of item in Wikidata, it is also difficult to keep track of this corpus. We linked each academic item we were working on to our research project by adding a statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}, but it was still relatively difficult to &quot;filter&quot; the part of the knowledge graph we were working on.   

Compared to bilbiographic catalogues (OpenAlex, Web Of Science, GoTriple...), Wikidata will never be as exhaustive and do not offer user-friendly search functions. Since 2014, an important amount of bibliographic data was imported in Wikidata with the project [[d:Wikidata:WikiCite|Wikicite]]. At the time of its creation, Wikicite was adressing the issue of closed bibliographic data and was trying to make these data open, many academic items were imported automatically in Wikidata through scraping. This practice was abandoned because the large amont of bibliographic data congested queries on Wikidata (this led to the decision to split the Wikidata graph between academic and non academic entities), and because new open science initiatives, notably OpenAlex (2022), are now taking on the task of creating a exhaustive catalogues of all scholarly production. In this context, the community has to rethink the purpose of Wikidata regarding bilbiographic data.   

==== Future possbilities ====
A solution to the limitations would be to developp the role of Wikidata as a link between other tools of the open science ecosystem. For example, developping and maintaining plugins or extensions for specialised softwares like Zotero, Wikibase, and Omeka could connect Wikidata with more specialised graphs. Such extensions could help building local graphs by allowing the reuse of wikidata item (eg. autocompletion), but also help contributing to Wikidata thanks to export features. (Example :&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Finn Årup|last2=Lyhne|first2=Ivar|last3=Garigliotti|first3=Dario|last4=Butzbach|first4=Annika|last5=Ravn Boess|first5=Emilia|last6=Hose|first6=Katja|last7=Kørnøv|first7=Lone|date=2023|title=Environmental impact assessment reports in Wikidata and a Wikibase|url=https://repositum.tuwien.at/handle/20.500.12708/193492|language=en|publisher=CEUR-WS.org|volume=3443|pages=1–8|doi=10.34726/5421}}&lt;/ref&gt;)  Wikidata could then be an intermediary between locally curated corpus and more exhaustive bilbiographic catalogues such as OpenAlex. For example, Wikidata items could be used to tag articles in a more precise way instead of using keywords and sharing enriched corpus in Wikidata could help to train more precise taging algorythms.

== 2.Modelling the content of litterature reviews ==
The goal of this step was to test '''Hypothesis 2''' (Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference) by modelling the content of our selected articles into Wikidata. [[wikipedia:Knowledge_modeling|Knowledge modelling]] is the process of making a machine readable model of knowledge. As we have a background in social sciences, we felt the need to question the relationship between this process and other methodologies such as concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks. We present these methodologies before describing our current knowledge modelling experimentations.

=== Concept mapping, thematic networks and causal networks ===
This section presents social science methodology that presents similarities with knowledge modelling.

==== Concept maps ====
[[File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conceptual_Diagram_-_Example.svg|thumb|Example conceptual diagram|251x251px]]Concept maps are ''concepts'' (boxes) and ''propositions'' (arrow indicating the relationship between two boxes)&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;Cañas, Alberto J., et al. &quot;CmapTools: A knowledge modeling and sharing environment.&quot; (2004): 125-135. https://thomaseskridge.com/assets/pdf/Canas-2004.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;. Concept maps can be a powerful literature review tool&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Lewis|first=John Kennedy|date=2016|title=Using ATLAS.ti to Facilitate Data Analysis for a Systematic Review of Leadership Competencies in the Completion of a Doctoral Dissertation|url=https://www.ssrn.com/abstract=2850726|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|language=en|doi=10.2139/ssrn.2850726|issn=1556-5068}}&lt;/ref&gt; allowing to synthetize theoretical statements about relationship between concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Panniers|first=Teresa L|last2=Feuerbach|first2=Renee Daiuta|last3=Soeken|first3=Karen L|date=2003-08-01|title=Methods in informatics: using data derived from a systematic review of health care texts to develop a concept map for use in the neonatal intensive care setting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1532046403000911|journal=Journal of Biomedical Informatics|series=Building Nursing Knowledge through Informatics: From Concept Representation to Data Mining|volume=36|issue=4|pages=232–239|doi=10.1016/j.jbi.2003.09.010|issn=1532-0464}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They can be built using specialised softwares (e.g. [https://cmap.ihmc.us/ Cmap]&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;, Altas.Ti &quot;network&quot; feature...). The &quot;box and arrow&quot; logic is similar to how knowledge is modelled on Wikidata : the equivalent of concepts is ''item'' and the equivalent of propositions are ''statements''. The difference between a softwares like Cmap and Wikidata is the underlying format of the data.  
  
==== Thematic networks ====
[[File:Thematic network example.jpg|thumb|447x447px|Structure of a thematic network (Source: based on Attride-Stirling 2001)]]
A thematic network is “simply a way of organizing a thematic analysis of qualitative data”&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Attride-Stirling|first=Jennifer|date=2001-12|title=Thematic networks: an analytic tool for qualitative research|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/146879410100100307|journal=Qualitative Research|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=385–405|doi=10.1177/146879410100100307|issn=1468-7941}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is compatible with classical coding strategies such as [[grounded theory]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Corbin|first=Juliet|last2=Strauss|first2=Anselm|date=1990-12-01|title=Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons and Evaluative Criteria|url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602/html|journal=Zeitschrift für Soziologie|language=en|volume=19|issue=6|pages=418–427|doi=10.1515/zfsoz-1990-0602|issn=2366-0325}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thematic networks can be used to visualise the data structure after identifying themes and help structure and interpret the data&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;. The principle is to assemble basic themes into more general themes. Qualitative researchers usually use {{Wikidata entity link|Q4550939}} and qualitative coding to identify themes and sub-themes. However, the nature of the relationship between these various themes and sub-themes is often not specified.   
[[File:Adoption_CLD.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adoption_CLD.svg|thumb|421x421px|Causal loop diagram of ''Adoption'' model, used to demonstrate systems dynamics]]

==== Causal diagrams ====
The use of diagrams to represent causal relationship exist in various research practices. In statistics, researchers sometime present models with boxes and arrows representing correlations and/or causations&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://mirror.vcu.edu/pub/mx/doc/mxmang10.pdf|title=Statistical Modeling|last=Neale|first=Michael C.|last2=Boker|first2=Steven M.|last3=Xie|first3=Gary|last4=Maes|first4=Hermine H.|publisher=Richmond, VA: Department of Psychiatry|year=1999|location=Virginia Commonwealth University}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In qualitative research, building grounded theory models is about &quot;[accounting] for not only all the major emergent concepts, themes, and dimensions, but also for their dynamic interrelationships. Speaking in classic boxes-and-arrows terms, this process amounts to assembling the constellation of boxes with a special focus on the arrows.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gioia|first=Dennis A.|last2=Corley|first2=Kevin G.|last3=Hamilton|first3=Aimee L.|date=2013-01|title=Seeking Qualitative Rigor in Inductive Research: Notes on the Gioia Methodology|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428112452151|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=15–31|doi=10.1177/1094428112452151|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt; After identifying themes, qualitative researchers are expected to theorize the &quot;arrows&quot; between themes&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt;R.esearchers relying on system theory also use causal loop diagram where boxes represent variables and arrows represent causal influence (positive or negative), causal relationship can &quot;feedback&quot; (two variables can influence each other)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4|title=Causal Loop Diagrams|last=Barbrook-Johnson|first=Pete|last2=Penn|first2=Alexandra S.|date=2022|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-031-01833-6|location=Cham|pages=47–59|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-031-01919-7_4}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

=== Knowledge modelling in Wikidata : first round of analysis ===
This section presents our knowledge modelling experimentation in Wikidata.

==== Conceptual modelling ====
Our first step was to reflect on what is a &quot;concept&quot; and what kind of wikidata properties could be used to model concepts in Wikidata. Scholars in management have called for more rigorous ways to define concepts&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; and modelling concepts in Wikidata could help to build less ambiguous concepts. Concept definition encompass various aspects such as the nature of the phenomenon, its characteristics, the links with prototypical cases or examples, the contrast with other concepts, the links with causes and consequences...&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Podsakoff|first=Philip M.|last2=MacKenzie|first2=Scott B.|last3=Podsakoff|first3=Nathan P.|date=2016-04|title=Recommendations for Creating Better Concept Definitions in the Organizational, Behavioral, and Social Sciences|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1094428115624965|journal=Organizational Research Methods|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=159–203|doi=10.1177/1094428115624965|issn=1094-4281}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and scholars have advised to take insight from philosophy to work on concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Makowski|first=Piotr Tomasz|date=2021-10|title=Optimizing Concepts: Conceptual Engineering in the Field of Management—The Case of Routines Research|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/amr.2019.0252|journal=Academy of Management Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=4|pages=702–724|doi=10.5465/amr.2019.0252|issn=0363-7425}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We thus read work in cognitive science which was summarizing psychology and philsosophy approaches on the determination of the content of concepts&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Origin of Concepts|last=Carey|first=Susan|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press USA - OSO|isbn=978-0-19-536763-8|series=Oxford Series in Cognitive Development Ser|location=Cary}}&lt;/ref&gt;. We summarize these approaches below and examine which wikidata properties exist to represent them.
*Definition: the content of a concept can be formed by its decomposition into other concepts. Many Wikidata properties can be relevant to model definitions, for example: {{Wikidata entity link|P1269}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P361}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P527}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1552}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P6477}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}}...
*Categorization: the content of a concept is formed by its illustration by an exemplar (a [[wikipedia:Prototype_theory|prototype]]) that best represent the concept. (The closer a phenomenon is to the prototype, the more likely it belong to the category). Apart from the inclusion of images to illustrate an item, Wikidata structure do not highlight exemplars. However, properties signifying relations of categorizations are among the most used with {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} and {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} (see discussion here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Basic_membership_properties).
*Theory: the content of a concept is formed by its role in providing explanation of the world. Wikidata includes several properties to describe causal relationships: {{Wikidata entity link|P828}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1542}}, {{Wikidata entity link|P1537}}/{{Wikidata entity link|P1479}}, {{P|1478}}, {{P|P9353}} (see discussions here : https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Modeling_causes/en).
*Essence: the content of a concept is &quot;something&quot; deep explaning the entity's existence and its properties. We can use concepts before knowing what they mean, and this is what allows us to revise our knowledge about it. The idea of essence is well represented by the QID of Wikidata entities: it is independent of language and definitions and we can use it before really knowing what its properties will be.
*Origin: the content of the concept is determined causally by social and historial factors (e.g. someone inventing the concept and introducing its use in a language community). This can be represented by the property {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}}.

==== Testing concept modelling on {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} ====
To test concept modelling, we started by experimenting with the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We selected a subset of papers which had energy democracy as main topic :

*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901202}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q137901182}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q129652515}}
*{{Wikidata entity link|Q114306483}}

We read each paper and used them as source in manually entered statements in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. For example, Droubi et. Al stated &quot;Energy democracy is both an ideal and a process&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Droubi|first=Sufyan|last2=Heffron|first2=Raphael|last3=McCauley|first3=Darren|date=2022-04-01|title=A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901182|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|volume=86|pages=4|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444}}&lt;/ref&gt;, we thus entered the wikidata statement {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q840396}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q3249551}}, using the paper as reference (see screenshot below). The result of this first step is visible in the archival version of the item (22 May 2026) here https://www.wikidata.org/w/index.php?title=Q14944319&amp;oldid=2495982191.

[[File:Wikidata statement- energy democracy is an instance of ideal.png|915x915px|border]]

We listed the difficulties encountered as we worked and we also asked the Wikidata community to give us feedback on our modelling on the item discussion page (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Talk:Q14944319). These issues were related to contradictions, precision, concision and ontology. We discuss each issue and draft recommandations to refine our modelling process.  

===== Contradictions =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback highlighted some apparent contradictions (The values in &quot;does not have effect&quot; seems contrary to what is listed in &quot;has goal&quot;.) We would however argue this is not a problem because &quot;statements essentially point to referenceable sources of information and different sources may provide contradicting information, it's possible to represent a plurality of perspectives on Wikidata&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Help:Statements#Plurality_and_consensus|title=Help:Statements - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-06-08}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Wikidata essentially supports epistemic pluralism : different worldviews can be represented in wikidata&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.12260v1|title=A Multi-Axial Mindset for Ontology Design Lessons from Wikidata's Polyhierarchical Structure|last=Doğan|first=Ege Atacan|last2=Patel-Schneider|first2=Peter F.|date=2025-12-13|website=arXiv.org|language=en|access-date=2026-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;, as long as they are supported by references&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Amaral|first=Gabriel|last2=Piscopo|first2=Alessandro|last3=Kaffee|first3=Lucie-aimée|last4=Rodrigues|first4=Odinaldo|last5=Simperl|first5=Elena|date=2021-12-31|title=Assessing the Quality of Sources in Wikidata Across Languages: A Hybrid Approach|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3484828|journal=Journal of Data and Information Quality|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=1–35|doi=10.1145/3484828|issn=1936-1955}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Besides, in the case of goals versus effects statements, it is not contradictory because one can have a goal and fail to achieve it. In the case of energy democracy, the discrepancy between the stated goals of this movement and what it actually achieves is precisely what some authors are critiquing&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;.  

Recommandations : Contradictions are allowed in Wikidata. 

===== Precision =====
We noted that conceptual modelling requires an important degree of formalization and precision. This is a key advantage of Wikidata to be able to create links toward precise concepts which have their own identifiers. For example, we were able to create statements about specific laws and their unique identifiers in legal databases (e.g. {{Wikidata entity link|Q139764294}} and its identifier in the EUR-Lex database). However, the sources we are working with are not always precise enough and when concepts are not precisely defined, statements cannot be modelled correctly. For example, in the sentence &quot;management of social affairs by voluntary and self-governing associations is deemed to ensure that both citizen choice and public welfare are best served&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Veelen|first=Bregje van|last2=Horst|first2=Dan van der|date=2018-12-01|title=What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q129652515|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=46|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010}}&lt;/ref&gt;, &quot;choice&quot; could refer to {{Wikidata entity link|Q111986453}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1331926}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q12888920}}... We can see here that academic texts are using natural language and thus are using ambiguous terms. As a result, we received feedbacks regarding a lack of precision in our statements (too many and too vague statements). In addition to the ambiguity of sources, a reason why we ended up with very general statements is because we avoided the creation of new Wikidata items. While following this implicit rule allowed us to focus on the most notable concepts, creating new items could also help make the statements more precise. 

Recommandations : If a concept is ambiguous it should not be included in the modelled statements. Create more precise relevant concepts if they do not exist in Wikidata.  [[File:Wikidata visualisation screenshot of subclasses relationships including the item political concept.png|thumb|298x298px|Subclass relationships between &quot;concept&quot; and &quot;political concept&quot;.]]
===== Concision =====
Wikidata contributor's feedback indicated a lack of concision. Some of it coming from the fact that some values were &quot;in the tree of another value&quot;. The rule we take from this feeback is a need of logical simplification. Two examples illustrate possible logical simplification :
*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} was an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} and an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}. But in that case, it is not necessary to state that it is an {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}}, because {{Wikidata entity link|Q33104069}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q131362181}}, which is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q151885}} (see diagram on the right). Here, we have to keep only the more precise item. This reasonning is based on the assumption that {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} is transitive. It seems this reasonning could be generalized (we opened a discussion about this here https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning/Use_cases#Parcimonious_statement_constraints_based_on_subclass_of_(P279)_and_part_of_(P361)_transitivity&lt;nowiki/&gt;) The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize this kind of relationship (using &quot;instance of&quot; as transversal property and checking &quot;instance of or subclass of&quot;).

*We stated that {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But if we consider that {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is a {{Wikidata entity link|P279}} of {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}, then the inclusion of {{Wikidata entity link|Q15991216}} is implied. Here we could keep only the broader item {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. But unlike the reasonning above, we could not identify a way to generalize this reasonning. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}} can be a subclass of {{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}, but using the former item is more informative than using the later. For the property {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}}, using a value that is too precise results in too many statements and using a value that is too general results in too trivial statements. Choosing the degree of precision is a problem similar to choosing whether or not to create a new item.
Recommandations : When possible, use logical simplification to make statements more parcimonious. The [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata graph builder] is usefull to visualize redundancies. 

===== Quantification =====
Modelling quantitative statements was challenging. We mostly skipped those but made an attempt for one case : the paper {{Wikidata entity link|Q137901196}} states that &quot;9.8% of the final energy consumed in developing countries comes from modern renewable energy sources&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vanegas-Cantarero|first=María M.|date=2020-12-01|title=Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137901196|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=70|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Modelling this sentence by adding a statement in the item {{Wikidata entity link|Q177323}} would require creating a specific property for &quot;final energy consumption&quot;. There are such properties in Wikidata : for example, for renewable energy subsidies, there is {{Wikidata entity link|P6826}}. This type of property is notably useful to display information about an item  (e.g. the population of a town) on Wikipedia through dynamic infoboxes that are updated with Wikidata information. But the current informal rule on Wikidata property creation is to prefer the use of general properties and avoid the creation of specific properties. Therefore creating properties for every quantifiable characteristic may not be possible, nor desirable. An alternative way to model quantity is to create a specific item to represent what is quantified and use other properties to represent quantities (see example below). 

[[File:Wikidata screenshot of percentage modelling.png|border|783x783px]]

Since Wikidata is optimized for statements with a few discrete values, it is also more convenient to store quantitative (tabular) data elsewhere&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Larrañaga|first=Galder Gonzalez|last2=Pintscher|first2=Lydia|last3=Ainali|first3=Jan|last4=Fauconnier|first4=Sandra|date=July 2026|title=Tabular data vs structured data.pptx|url=https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1k37UX-VPwMgJbXoB7ZxsztE5LdKR_isM|journal=Wikimania 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It is also possible to link the item that is quantified to an external dataset about it. This can be done using the property {{Wikidata entity link|P1325}}. Since our aim is not to display or analyse quantitative data, we opted for this last solution.

Recommandation : Use existing properties for the quantity if it exists. If it does not exist, create an item representing what is measured and link it toward an external datasets containing the quantitative data.

===== Ontology =====
Ultimately, several of our difficulties were linked to some ontology challenges reflecting the complexity of the concept we were working on. According to the litterature, {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} refer to multiple types of entities. It represents a concept, an ideal, a process and an outcome. We reflected this with multiple {{Wikidata entity link|P31}} statements, but encountered struggles to model differences between ''process versus outcomes'', ''ideal versus reality'', ''phenomenon versus theory'' and ''discourses versus practices''. The wikidata community recommands having different items for ''process and outcome'' (criterion &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|Q127270577}}&quot;). For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q11629}} (practice of applying paint) is different from {{Wikidata entity link|Q3305213}} (visual artwork). However, this distinction is less straightforward for social processes which are are ongoing and evolving without a clear ending. Another problem was to separate ''ideal versus reality,'' we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3712}} to describe ideals and {{Wikidata entity link|P2670}} to describe processes attempting to reach it. It was also difficult to separate ''phenomenon versus theory,'' for example, we did not manage to model the idea that the literature on energy democracy is fragmented. Finally, we also would have needed more distinctions between ''discourses and practices.'' Our sources suggested that energy democracy discourses and practices may have different causes, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P3938}} to indicate the origins of the concept or the movments promoting it, but this was not a very precise way to model this idea.

Our first attempt to multiple &quot;natures&quot; of energy democracy into a single item is not satisfactory, and implementing the modelling recommandations we identified above may not be sufficient to build more parcimonious statements. Creating new items to reflect the different aspects of energy democracy may here be necessary. To do so we have to decide how to split the different natures {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} and what will be the relationship between the resulting items. Here the definition of an {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}} (formal representation) in Wikidata can quickly escalate into questionning {{Wikidata entity link|Q44325}} (metaphysical reflexion on the nature of things), and especially {{Wikidata entity link|Q1713511}} (the nature of the social world). Indeed, the relations between the different types of entities constituting the social worls are not simple nor consensual among philosophers of social science.  

For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q15080858}} posits that different things have different ways of being (modes of reality). They propose to classify entities in four categories : material entities (that can exist independently of humans), conceptual entities (concepts, discourses, ideas, meaning…), artefactual entities (human-made and combining conceptual and material elements) and social entities (that depends on human activity to exist)&lt;ref&gt;Fleetwood, S. (2004). An ontology for organisation and management studies. ''Critical Realist Applications in Organisation and Management Studies'', 27–53.&lt;/ref&gt;. A complex concept like {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} is concerned with all these types of entities. The energy system include many material entities such as oil fields, the sun, seas, trees... and artefacts such as energy production unit, power lines, home appliances, trucks... (Including conceptual entities such as the name of these artefacts or the knowledge to make them function.). There are the social entities in which they are encompassed (the enregy sectors, energy businesses, energy policies...). There are conceptual entities like normative/political discourses discussing how these artefact and social system should work and there are conceptual entities in the academic sphere building theories about how all this works or should work. 

In theory, such ontology can be implemented in Wikidata as it &quot;supports multiple coexisting classification&quot; and allow multiple ontological frameworks to coexist.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt; Current Wikidata ontology is structured with dischotomies such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q23958946}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q3799040}}... A quick search seem to show that entities related to the social reality can quickly fall into heterogeneous and sometime contradictory root classes (see table below). 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Item
!Existing root class entity
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q190539}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q34770}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q9081}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q43229}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q49773}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q67518978}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q103940464}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q30241068}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}
|-
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q12705}}
|{{Wikidata entity link|Q4406616}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q7048977}}

{{Wikidata entity link|Q1970309}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q16686448}}
{{Wikidata entity link|Q99527517}}/{{Wikidata entity link|Q132907471}}
|}
Current {{Wikidata entity link|Q3882785}} in Wikidata do not seem very informative to classify the aspects of our concept in a top-down manner. We discussed with the Wikidata community&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:WikiProject_Ontology#Social_ontology|title=Wikidata talk:WikiProject Ontology - Wikidata|website=www.wikidata.org|language=en|access-date=2026-07-28}}&lt;/ref&gt; and explored existing ontologies that could be relevant to our project. Some colleagues social science and humanities recommended CIDOC-CRM (https://cidoc-crm.org/crmsoc/fm_releases) because of the active community maintaining it. The conclusion of this exploration is that Wikidata, because of its collaborative nature, may not be the best plateform to implement a rigorous, interoperable, high-level ontology. We thus decided to focus on a lower ontological level. 

=== Knowledge modelling in Wikidata : second round of analysis ===
Our first round of analysis resulted in : 

* Add links to exported files + insert graphs screenshots

After our first round of analysis, we decided to focus on the strenghs of wikidata, which seem to be its ability to be a hub for concepts linked to external identifiers. We reframed our modelling goals to focus on identifying the main concepts in our corpus, their definition, their relationships, and their potential existing identifiers. Our next steps are  

* Read articles of the corpus again and model more precise statements
* Include pages in references

* Create new items to reflect the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} : the social movement advocating for it, the political concept theorizing it, the concrete initiatives implementing it, the litterature theorizing it, etc... based on a new reading of our sample of article and aligned with existing ontologies.
We started by relying on {{Wikidata entity link|Q136447761}}, which states more clearly the different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}. We kept the first item {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} as the main conceptual entity, representing the ideal of energy democracy as a goal. We created other items such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q141224129}} to represent the social movement advocating for energy democracy, {{Wikidata entity link|Q141224695}} to represent policies havin energy democracy as goal, {{Wikidata entity link|Q141223998}} to represent the scholarly study of energy democracy (to separate ''phenomenon versus theory)'', {{Wikidata entity link|Q141224432}} to represent energy democracy as an outcome (to separate ''process versus outcome).'' Creating these different facets of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} allowed more precise modelling. 

Then existing statements were sorted to match the different types of entity. For example, {{Wikidata entity link|Q3109572}} was linked to {{Wikidata entity link|Q141224129}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q1951366}} to {{Wikidata entity link|Q141224695}}.

To reflect the dimensions of the concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}}, we used {{Wikidata entity link|P527}}. For example, the sentence &quot;Becker and Naumann list decentralized energy generation, public and cooperative ownership and energy sovereignty as the dimensions of energy democracy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Becker|first=Sören|last2=Naumann|first2=Matthias|date=2017-01-01|title=Energy democracy: Mapping the debate on energy alternatives|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q139492906|volume=11|issue=8|doi=10.1111/GEC3.12321}}&lt;/ref&gt;&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Szulecki|first=Kacper|last2=Øverland|first2=Indra|date=2020-11-01|title=Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review|url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q136447761|journal=Energy Research &amp; Social Science|language=English|volume=69|pages=101768|doi=10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768}}&lt;/ref&gt;, was modeled as {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} {{Wikidata entity link|P527}} : {{Wikidata entity link|Q861135}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q119080352}}, {{Wikidata entity link|Q4227971}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q130487674}}.

We removed some statements, following logical simplifications. For example, there is no need to mention the broad concept of {{Wikidata entity link|Q6498684}}, while there are mentions of more precise concepts such as {{Wikidata entity link|Q119080352}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q4227971}}. 

== 3. Data visualisation ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 3''' (SPARQL-based queries and visualizations can be used to navigate  scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs). At this stage we started to identify visualization use cases we would like to test, they are listed below.

=== Filter statements ===

*Visualize only statements using a specitic source in order to map the content of a single academic article. First test here: https://w.wiki/PFqH
*Visualize only items which are part of the present project (all the academic items of the project include the statement {{Wikidata entity link|P6104}} {{Wikidata entity link|Q134545539}}).

=== Properties visualisation ===

*Visualise the &quot;tree&quot; of a property used in an item : Wikidata graph builder seem to be the most user friendly, robust and versatile tool to visualise a graph of a single property (https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/)
[[File:Visualisation of the &quot;instance of&quot; values for energy democracy in Wikidata.png|center|thumb|553x553px|Visualisation of the &quot;{{Wikidata entity link|P31}}&quot; values for {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} in Wikidata. Made with the [https://angryloki.github.io/wikidata-graph-builder/ Wikidata Graph Builder].]]

=== Concepts visualisation ===

*Map all statements related to a single item (e.g. [[d:Wikidata:Scholia|Scholia]] request &quot;topic in context&quot;)[[File:Screenshot of Energy democracy wikidata graph.png|center|thumb|450x450px|Graph of the {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} concept generated with [https://scholia.toolforge.org Scholia]'s &quot;The topic in context&quot; query.]]Map the statements that two items have in common to make comparisons.
[[File:Community energy and energy democracy.png|center|thumb|440x440px|Data visualisation of the concepts of {{Wikidata entity link|Q14944319}} and {{Wikidata entity link|Q113514984}}. Made with [https://think.resoneo.com/wikidata-search/ Wikidata Knowledge Explorer] .]]Find the relationships between two concepts.

=== Mapping sources consensus ===

*Queries can help visualize which concept is central across sources : https://query.wikidata.org/#%23defaultView%3AGraph%0ASELECT%20%0A%20%20%3Fvalue%20%3FvalueLabel%20%3Fpublication%0A%0AWHERE%20%7B%0A%20%20wd%3AQ14944319%20%3Fp%20%3Fobject_statement%20.%0A%20%20%3Fobject_statement%20prov%3AwasDerivedFrom%20%3Freference%20%3B%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%3Fps%20%20%3Fvalue%20.%0A%20%20%3Fvalue%20rdfs%3Alabel%20%3FvalueLabel%20.%0A%20%20FILTER%20%28lang%28%3FvalueLabel%29%20%3D%20%27en%27%29%0A%20%20%3Freference%20pr%3AP248%20%3Fpublication%20.%0A%7D[[File:Link between concepts and references in the Energy Democracy wikidata item.png|center|thumb|396x396px|Link between concepts and references in the Energy Democracy wikidata item.]]
*Visualise graphs and use the number of references to determine edge thickness/weight in order to make consensual statements more visible.[[File:Number of references supporting statements about a chain of contributing factors of energy democracy.png|center|thumb|454x454px|Visualisation of the number of references supporting statements about the chain of contributing factors of energy democracy.]]

== 4. Writing ==
The goal of this step is to test '''Hypothesis 4''' (Wikiversity pages can be used to write literature reviews collaboratively in text format augmented by interwiki links). 

* To do idea : write a Wikiversity page for each central concept (e.g. energy democracy, energy community, energy citizenship...)

=== Advantages of Wikiversity ===
Writing on a Wikiversity page offers some advantages to implement the principles of open linked data in text format. We could cite academic items using their Wikidata QID to generate the citations below (but if we use an URL to cite a paper, it does not automatically check if there is an existing QID for it), and also link toward Wikidata entities using a template ([[Template:Wikidata entity link|Wikidata entity link]]). Although we did not translate the present page for now, Wikiversity offers the possibility to translate a page in multiple languages (an interesting possibility in the context of the The FAIRisation of scholarly communication&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Maryl|first=Maciej|last2=Blaszczyńska|first2=Marta|last3=Zalotyńska|first3=Agnieszka|last4=Taylor|first4=Laurence|last5=Avanço|first5=Karla|last6=Balula|first6=Ana|last7=Buchner|first7=Anna|last8=Caliman|first8=Lorena|last9=Clivaz|first9=Claire|date=2021-01|title=Future of Scholarly Communication|url=https://hal.science/hal-03277615}}&lt;/ref&gt;). The possibility to view the page history provide an exhaustive versionning of a paper, which constitute interesting data documenting the academic writing process (at first we did not comment the nature of our modifications but after thinking about this reuse possibility, we described it with more details). The contribution statistics based on the history also offers a new way to track author's contributions to a paper in a transparent way.

Some researchers experimented relationships between the wikimedia community and researchers by making researchers review wikipedia articles&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/226771/|title=CLOUDSENSE Collaborative Review of Wikipedia Cloud Feedback article|last=Finney|first=D.|last2=Huang|first2=X.|date=2025-05-16|website=eprints.whiterose.ac.uk|language=en|doi=10.48785/100/329|access-date=2026-07-28|last3=Hinnie|first3=L.|last4=Sheppard|first4=N.}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== The issue of text interoperability ===
A key issue we are encountering is the question of the interoperability of texts. While the interoperability of data is starting to be well discussed in the open science community, the interoperability of texts do not seem to benefit from the same level of discussion. We encountered several interoperability issues regarding our writing. First, copying texts written on a word processor software (e.g. microsoft word) into a wiki page (or the other way around) is relatively seamless in terms of formatting, but the management of references is lacking. Reformatting references is very time consuming and a real barrier for text interoperability in academic context : it is difficult to copy text from an academic publication into a wiki text, and difficult to turn a wiki text into a publication (the only possibility is to export the page as a PDF and you may be reading this article in this format).   

There are also uncertaineties regarding how to reuse texts published under creative common licences. Academic texts published under CC-BY-SA licences can in theory be remixed and reused. But academia does not have established practices regarding how this can be done. If we want to reuse a whole page, should we put it in quotation marks and simply cite the paper ? Should the original authors be listed as co-authors ? To what extent academic publisher will accept to publish &quot;remixed&quot; texts while they usually require that publications contain mainly unpublished content ? The norms of what is appropriate remix and reuse practices in academia has yet to be decided... and this could be an interesting conversation to have in the open science community.  

== Discussion ==
Our goal was to assess the potential of Wikidata and Wikiversity to build a living literature review method and tackle issues of information overload, knowledge synthesis and knowledge dissemination, following open science principles. By conducting a meta-review on just sustainability transition (that is a review of existing literature reviews), and experimenting with existing technical solutions, we were able to identify the strenghs and limitations of the Wikidata ecosystem. First Wikidata can be used to enrich scientific item metadata and build living scientific corpora with rich annotations (Hypothesis 1 is verified). However, the technical barriers to do so are still high and the Wikidata database is too general to allow a community to work on a specific curated corpus of scientific items. Secondly, Wikidata can be used for scientific knowledge modeling through statements using scientific items as reference (Hypothesis 2 is verified). However, this requires developping new methodological standards regarding what is a rigorous modelling in social science, as well as building specific {{Wikidata entity link|Q324254}}. An unexpected finding is that the formalization necessary for knowledge modelling in wikidata invites to formalize the reasonning behind modelling choices, a process that is rarely done in qualitative analysis even though such reasonning are likely present. The modelling process also responds to calls in management sciences to engage in more systematic categorizing to avoid semantic confusion&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Jason R.|date=2025-01|title=Categorizing Concepts and Phenomena in Management Research: A Four-Phase Integrative Review and Recommendations|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2023.0052|journal=Academy of Management Annals|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|page=28|pages=9–37|doi=10.5465/annals.2023.0052|issn=1941-6520}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Thirdly, SPARQL-based queries can be used to vizualised scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs, but we cannot completely say they allow users to &quot;navigate&quot; it (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified). SPARQL-based queries are powerful but they require technical knowledge, especially now that the split between academic and non-academic items in Wikidata requires to write federated queries. To be able to &quot;navigate&quot; scientific corpora and scientific knowledge graphs on Wikidata, more user-friendly tools would be needed. Finally, we did see advantaged in using Wikiversity pages to write collaboratively in text format augmented by hypertext links, but there are still important technical and instittional barriers (Hypothesis 3 is partially verified) : the interoperability of text is a key issue to reuse publications. The main issues we encountered were the management of references and uncertainty regarding the compatibilities between writing publicly on a wiki page and engaging in classical publication processes.

A potential solution to the issues encountered could be to develop a specialised literature review software that would allow researchers to build living literature reviews including knowledge graphs and wiki pages. This kind of tool should be user-friendly and include the missing tools we identified. In addition, it could include more advanced analysis functions such as logical reasonning based on the knowledge graph&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;. 

=== Quality assessment ===
&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|vauthors=((E. Peireira, A.))|year=2022|title=Usages et transformations d’un commun numérique : les données généalogiques équines|publisher=Paris 10|url=https://theses.fr/s357002|access-date=25 August 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Methods for assessing Wikidata's data quality are still under development: following the questions raised by Piscopo and Simperl  about the accuracy and reliability of the data&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Piscopo|first=Alessandro|last2=Simperl|first2=Elena|date=2019-08-20|title=What we talk about when we talk about wikidata quality: a literature survey|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3306446.3340822|journal=Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Open Collaboration|series=OpenSym '19|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|volume=17|pages=1–11|doi=10.1145/3306446.3340822|isbn=978-1-4503-6319-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;, Shenov et al. (2022) propose a framework combining several indicators to detect low-quality statements, revealing issues such as duplicate entities, missing triples, and unmet constraints&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Shenoy|first=Kartik|last2=Ilievski|first2=Filip|last3=Garijo|first3=Daniel|last4=Schwabe|first4=Daniel|last5=Szekely|first5=Pedro|date=2022-04|title=A study of the quality of Wikidata|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1570826821000536|journal=Journal of Web Semantics|volume=72|pages=100679|doi=10.1016/j.websem.2021.100679|issn=1570-8268}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Two studies address the quality of ''referencing'' in Wikidata — that is, the reliability of sources cited to support claims — a distinct but complementary aspect of data quality itself. Amaral et al. (2021)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Amaral|first=Gabriel|last2=Piscopo|first2=Alessandro|last3=Kaffee|first3=Lucie-aimée|last4=Rodrigues|first4=Odinaldo|last5=Simperl|first5=Elena|date=2021-10-15|title=Assessing the Quality of Sources in Wikidata Across Languages: A Hybrid Approach|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3484828|journal=Journal of Data and Information Quality (JDIQ)|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|volume=13|issue=4|pages=23:1–23:35|doi=10.1145/3484828|issn=1936-1955}}&lt;/ref&gt; use a mixed-methods approach (crowdsourcing, statistics, machine learning) to assess the relevance, accessibility, and authority of Wikidata's references at scale and across languages. Beghaeiraveri et al. (2023) build on this by proposing the RQSS, a system that quantifies referencing quality through scores, allowing contributors and project leads to identify and fix gaps&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Hosseini Beghaeiraveri|first=Seyed Amir|last2=Gray|first2=Alasdair|last3=McNeill|first3=Fiona|date=2024-12-01|title=RQSS: Referencing quality scoring system for Wikidata|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/action/showAbstract|journal=Semantic Web|language=EN|publisher=SAGE Publications|volume=15|issue=6|pages=2419–2475|doi=10.3233/SW-243695|issn=1570-0844}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Together, these works mark a shift from exploratory assessment of reference quality toward standardized measurement tools — though this raises the question of whether a numerical score can adequately capture a notion as contextual as a source's &quot;authority.&quot;

The community develops tools for detecting vandalism (intentional additions of low-quality contributions), relying on machine learning approaches adapted to the specific features of RDF triples, up to the current deployment of the ORES service in Wikidata&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heindorf|first=Stefan|last2=Potthast|first2=Martin|last3=Stein|first3=Benno|last4=Engels|first4=Gregor|date=2016-10-24|title=Vandalism Detection in Wikidata|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2983323.2983740|journal=Proceedings of the 25th ACM International on Conference on Information and Knowledge Management|series=CIKM '16|location=New York, NY, USA|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=327–336|doi=10.1145/2983323.2983740|isbn=978-1-4503-4073-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Sarabadani|first=Amir|last2=Halfaker|first2=Aaron|last3=Taraborelli|first3=Dario|date=2017-04-03|title=Building Automated Vandalism Detection Tools for Wikidata|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3041021.3053366|journal=Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion|series=WWW '17 Companion|location=Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHE|publisher=International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee|pages=1647–1654|doi=10.1145/3041021.3053366|isbn=978-1-4503-4914-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Future research ===


- Can we &quot;reason&quot; with Wikidata  (See: https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:WikiProject_Reasoning) : neurosymbolic AI ?

- Compare grounded theory/CAQDAS with knowledge modelling methods, test annotation softwares : https://inception-project.github.io/ ; https://pacte.crim.ca/index_en.html

==== Supporting inductive research ====
Inductive research with an empirical phenomenon and then use of abstract concepts to describe it, a process called “Framing”, theorizing or conceptualizing &lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=June 2015|title=Novices’ Struggles with Conceptual and Theoretical Framing in Writing Dissertations and Papers for Publication|journal=Publications|publisher=Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute|volume=3|issue=2|pages=104–119|doi=10.3390/publications3020104|issn=2304-6775|vauthors=((Casanave, C. P.)), ((Li, Y.))}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Conceptualization require to answer the question « what are our data examples of? » &lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;.  This step is particularly challenging in inductive research since the same empirical phenomenon can be described through different concepts that leads to different perspectives or lenses the phenomenon and will refer to different theoretical traditions or disciplines &lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;. Building a collection of concepts and their relationship to specific concrete cases in Wikidata could support inductive process by giving researchers access to relevant conceptualizations made by others.

== Funding ==
This project is funded by the [[m:Grants:Programs/Wikimedia_Research_&amp;_Technology_Fund/Wikimedia_Research_Fund|Wikimedia Research Fund]], Grant ID: G-RS-2504-18935. The text of the initial research proposal is available here : https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20760603.

== Data == 
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
! QID !! Year !! DOI !! Title
|-
| [[d:Q137901191|Q137901191]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/GEO2.70040 10.1002/GEO2.70040] || Place-Based Sustainability Transformations for Just Futures: A Systematic Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901187|Q137901187]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1002/WCC.932 10.1002/WCC.932] || Public Communication of Climate and Justice: A Scoping Review
|-
| [[d:Q135979013|Q135979013]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z 10.1007/S13280-025-02202-Z] || Participatory approaches to climate adaptation, resilience, and mitigation: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901223|Q137901223]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W 10.1007/S13412-021-00726-W] || A review of stakeholder participation studies in renewable electricity and water: does the resource context matter?
|-
| [[d:Q137901184|Q137901184]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6 10.1007/S40518-021-00184-6] || Energy Storage as an Equity Asset.
|-
| [[d:Q114204627|Q114204627]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z 10.1007/S43621-021-00024-Z] || Can public awareness, knowledge and engagement improve climate change adaptation policies?
|-
| [[d:Q137901209|Q137901209]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512 10.1016/J.AGSY.2025.104512] || Designing with non-humans for agricultural systems transformation: An interdisciplinary review and framework for reflection
|-
| [[d:Q137901201|Q137901201]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987 10.1016/J.COPSYC.2024.101987] || Individual and community catalysts for Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) development
|-
| [[d:Q114197507|Q114197507]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438 10.1016/J.CRM.2022.100438] || Advancements of sustainable development goals in co-production for climate change adaptation research
|-
| [[d:Q129203992|Q129203992]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040 10.1016/J.EGYR.2024.01.040] || Empowering energy citizenship: Exploring dimensions and drivers in citizen engagement during the energy transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901216|Q137901216]] || 2026 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187 10.1016/J.EIAR.2025.108187] || From participation to partnership: A systematic review of public engagement in sustainable urban planning
|-
| [[d:Q137210566|Q137210566]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004 10.1016/J.ERSS.2015.10.004] || Energy justice: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q115448818|Q115448818]] || 2016 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001 10.1016/J.ERSS.2016.04.001] || Stakeholder involvement in sustainability science—A critical view
|-
| [[d:Q129652515|Q129652515]] || 2018 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2018.06.010] || What is energy democracy? Connecting social science energy research and political theory
|-
| [[d:Q137901196|Q137901196]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101716] || Of renewable energy, energy democracy, and sustainable development: A roadmap to accelerate the energy transition in developing countries
|-
| [[d:Q136447761|Q136447761]] || 2020 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101768] || Energy democracy as a process, an outcome and a goal: A conceptual review
|-
| [[d:Q137901204|Q137901204]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101834] || Identities, innovation, and governance: A systematic review of co-creation in wind energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901183|Q137901183]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101837] || Renewable energy for whom? A global systematic review of the environmental justice implications of renewable energy technologies
|-
| [[d:Q137901207|Q137901207]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101871] || Rethinking community empowerment in the energy transformation: A critical review of the definitions, drivers and outcomes
|-
| [[d:Q137901215|Q137901215]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101876] || Co-production in the wind energy sector: A systematic literature review of public engagement beyond invited stakeholder participation
|-
| [[d:Q114306511|Q114306511]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907 10.1016/J.ERSS.2020.101907] || From consultation toward co-production in science and policy: A critical systematic review of participatory climate and energy initiatives
|-
| [[d:Q137901221|Q137901221]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102257] || The challenges of engaging island communities: Lessons on renewable energy from a review of 17 case studies
|-
| [[d:Q137901218|Q137901218]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102333] || The (in)justices of smart local energy systems: A systematic review, integrated framework, and future research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901182|Q137901182]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102444] || A critical review of energy democracy: A failure to deliver justice?
|-
| [[d:Q114306483|Q114306483]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482 10.1016/J.ERSS.2021.102482] || The role of energy democracy and energy citizenship for participatory energy transitions: A comprehensive review
|-
| [[d:Q114306476|Q114306476]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102714] || What about citizens? A literature review of citizen engagement in sustainability transitions research
|-
| [[d:Q137901193|Q137901193]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102862] || When energy justice is contested: A systematic review of a decade of research on Sweden?s conflicted energy landscape
|-
| [[d:Q137901219|Q137901219]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913 10.1016/J.ERSS.2022.102913] || Can we optimise for justice? Reviewing the inclusion of energy justice in energy system optimisation models
|-
| [[d:Q137901186|Q137901186]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103010] || Analysing intersections of justice with energy transitions in India- A systematic literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901181|Q137901181]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103053] || Fostering justice through engagement: A literature review of public engagement in energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137211155|Q137211155]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103213] || A fairway to fairness: Toward a richer conceptualization of fairness perceptions for just energy transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901217|Q137901217]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221 10.1016/J.ERSS.2023.103221] || Powering just energy transitions: A review of the justice implications of community choice aggregation
|-
| [[d:Q137901199|Q137901199]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104016] || Making energy renovations equitable: A literature review of decision-making criteria for a just energy transition in residential buildings
|-
| [[d:Q137901188|Q137901188]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104036] || Community energy justice: A review of origins, convergence, and a research agenda
|-
| [[d:Q137901211|Q137901211]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104067] || Psychological and social factors driving citizen involvement in renewable energy communities: A systematic review
|-
| [[d:Q137901192|Q137901192]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104149] || Assessing social impacts and Energy Justice along green hydrogen supply chains: a capability-based framework
|-
| [[d:Q137901195|Q137901195]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422 10.1016/J.ERSS.2025.104422] || Out of place, scale and time? Navigating injustices across mission arenas of the German Energiewende
|-
| [[d:Q137901185|Q137901185]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546 10.1016/J.ESD.2024.101546] || Characterizing 'injustices' in clean energy transitions in Africa
|-
| [[d:Q137901226|Q137901226]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2024.143470] || Energy justice and sustainable urban renewal: A systematic review of low-income old town communities
|-
| [[d:Q137901222|Q137901222]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804 10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2024.120804] || Forest, climate, and policy literature lacks acknowledgement of environmental justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion
|-
| [[d:Q115441381|Q115441381]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504 10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111504] || Participatory methods in energy system modelling and planning – A review
|-
| [[d:Q137901205|Q137901205]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892 10.1016/J.RSER.2025.115892] || A systematic review of the intersection between energy justice and human rights
|-
| [[d:Q137901225|Q137901225]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2024.24 10.1017/SUS.2024.24] || Blue carbon as just transition? A structured literature review
|-
| [[d:Q137901220|Q137901220]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1017/SUS.2025.2 10.1017/SUS.2025.2] || Toward an intersectional equity approach in social-ecological transformations
|-
| [[d:Q137901203|Q137901203]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697 10.1080/14693062.2023.2256697] || Exploring the democracy-climate nexus: a review of correlations between democracy and climate policy performance
|-
| [[d:Q137901164|Q137901164]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1111/GEC3.12662 10.1111/GEC3.12662] || Creating fairer futures for sustainability transitions
|-
| [[d:Q137901227|Q137901227]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.1139/ER-2024-0018 10.1139/ER-2024-0018] || Community engagement in nature-positive food systems programming and research in East and Southern Africa: a review
|-
| [[d:Q119955266|Q119955266]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-101718-033103] || Co-Producing Sustainability: Reordering the Governance of Science, Policy, and Practice
|-
| [[d:Q137901206|Q137901206]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-112621-063400] || Metrics for Decision-Making in Energy Justice
|-
| [[d:Q137901213|Q137901213]] || 2022 || [https://doi.org/10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4 10.1186/S13705-021-00330-4] || Mapping emergent public engagement in societal transitions: a scoping review
|-
| [[d:Q137901163|Q137901163]] || 2025 || [https://doi.org/10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09 10.17573/CEPAR.2025.2.09] || From Co-Creation to Circular Cities: Exploring Living Labs in EU Governance Frameworks - A Literature Review
|-
| [[d:Q137901197|Q137901197]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/EN17143512 10.3390/EN17143512] || A Systematic Review on the Path to Inclusive and Sustainable Energy Transitions
|-
| [[d:Q104887325|Q104887325]] || 2019 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU11041023 10.3390/SU11041023] || Deliberation and the Promise of a Deeply Democratic Sustainability Transition
|-
| [[d:Q137901202|Q137901202]] || 2021 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU13042128 10.3390/SU13042128] || A Review of Energy Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa as a Transition Pathway to Energy Democracy
|-
| [[d:Q137901210|Q137901210]] || 2023 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU15032441 10.3390/SU15032441] || Sustainable Project Governance: Scientometric Analysis and Emerging Trends
|-
| [[d:Q137901224|Q137901224]] || 2024 || [https://doi.org/10.3390/SU16198700 10.3390/SU16198700] || Empowering Communities to Act for a Change: A Review of the Community Empowerment Programs towards Sustainability and Resilience
|}


== References ==
{{References}}</text>
      <sha1>0862186515fy4x9aeawm9lm2xbou2kq</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Template:METF/2026</title>
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      <id>2832572</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-09-10T06:47:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2832572</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="49360" sha1="m9adnrd4qrrglpv046xt89hmsm0o5bi" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{note|Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] exercise for [[motivation and emotion]].&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Help:Transclusion|Transclude]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]].}}
__NOTOC__&lt;/noinclude&gt;&lt;includeonly&gt;
==Topic development feedback==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Also check the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]] for changes made whilst reviewing the plan. If you don't understand the feedback or would like further information, [[Motivation and emotion/Staff|get in touch]] to discuss. Marks are available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}. Marks are based on the latest version before the due date.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:Autoroute icone.svg|right|85px]]
===1. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Title|Title]]===
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===2. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Headings]]===
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===3. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Headings|Overview]]===
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===4. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Key points|Key points]]===
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===5. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Figure|Figure]]===
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===6. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Learning feature|Learning feature]]===
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===7. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#References|References]]===
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===8. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Resources|Resources]]===
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===9. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#User page|User page]]===
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===10. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Social contribution|Social contribution]]===
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{{RoundBoxBottom}}&lt;/includeonly&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;{{collapse top|Simple example}}
==Simple example==
See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]]
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
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&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
#
|2=
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|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
#
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
#
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
gives
&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
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&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
#
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
#|3=
&lt;!-- Overview --&gt;
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|4=
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|5=
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}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 04:42, 17 August 2025 (UTC)
{{Collapse bottom}}
==Detailed example==
Example use of the template which includes commonly used feedback comments:
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
# Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed)
# User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
# Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
# Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand)
&lt;!-- 1-level --&gt;
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings)
# Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings)
# Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings)
&lt;!-- 3-level --&gt;
# Overly complicated[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying
&lt;!-- Conceptual --&gt;
# Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic
# Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts.
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections
# The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings
# Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.)
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
# &quot;Introduction&quot; heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections
# Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information
# Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections
# Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections
# Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark)
# Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings
# Remove citations from headings
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure
# Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement
# Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement
# Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment
# Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve.
# Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
# Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
# Very good
# Good
# Basic
# Insufficient
# Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section
# I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest
# Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest
# Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed)
# Make the scenario more practical or down-to-earth; it is currently too abstract
# Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit.
# Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions
# Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections.
# Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use present, rather than future, tense
# Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios)
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings
# Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment
# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
# Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions
# Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions
# Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section
# Solid development
# Promising development
# Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic
# Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic
# Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content
# Basic development
# Partial development
# Insufficient development
# No development
# Provide more detailed edit summaries
&lt;!-- Scope --&gt;
# The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad)
# The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title
# It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title
# It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title
# All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title
&lt;!-- Writing style --&gt;
# The writing style is clear and easy to follow
# The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise
# The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.)
# The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice.
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Good balance of theory and research
# Promising balance of theory and research
# Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research
# Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research
# Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples.
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples.
# Select the best theories about this topic
# Select the best research about this topic
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of citations
# Very good use of citations
# Good use of citations
# Promising use of citations
# Basic use of citations
# Insufficient use of citations
# Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the &quot;External links&quot; section
# Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence
&lt;!-- Citation style --&gt;
# Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials)
# Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year)
# [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
# Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words
# Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a &quot;down&quot; style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
# Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective
# Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour)
# Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body.
# Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft.
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]].
# Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is well developed
# Conclusion is well underway
# Conclusion is underway
# Conclusion is underdeveloped
# Conclusion hasn't been developed
# What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited
# Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned
# Relevant figure(s) are presented
# The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear
# A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved
# Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
# Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ...
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
&lt;!-- Size --&gt;
# Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view
# Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant
&lt;!-- Creation --&gt;
# Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
# One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
# Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Keep scenarios brief 
# Basic use of scenario/example/case study
# Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear
# Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice.
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz question(s)
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
# Place each quiz question in the most relevant section
# Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages
# Placeholder use of quiz question(s)
# Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]]
# Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]]
# Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table
# Use APA style for table captions
# Add table caption
# Cite each table at least once in the text
# Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent
# Very good
# Good
# Basic
# Insufficient
# To be developed
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- Move --&gt;
# Move Wikipedia links to the &quot;See also&quot; section
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the &quot;External links&quot; section
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# All references need in-text citation
# All citations need to be in the References
# Only include references which have been accessed and read
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## alphabetical order
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting]
## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable)
## use dois where available instead of other links
## include hyperlinked dois
## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
# A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic.
# Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used
# Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity.
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
## Very good
## Good
## Basic
## One of two link types provided
### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]
### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters)
## Use alphabetical order
## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Excellent
## Very good
## Good
## Basic
## One of two required external links provided
## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Move academic sources into the &quot;References&quot; sections and provide in-text citation
## Only include links directly related to the sub-title
## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population
## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Include source in brackets after link
## Use alphabetical order
## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent
# Used effectively
# Very good
# Good
# Basic but effective
# Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
# Description about self provided
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
# Very brief description about self – consider expanding
# Add description about self
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
# Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# Add link to book chapter
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making:
# One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
#* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
#* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
#* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum
# To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]].
# Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity.
# Well done on creating and uploading your own image!
# Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed
# Add a brief summary of each contribution
# Remember to sign comments on talk pages
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
}}
~~~~
&lt;/pre&gt;
gives
&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
# Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed)
# User name removed from the page; for authorship see [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page's edit history]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic.
# Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
# Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand)
&lt;!-- 1-level --&gt;
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings)
# Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings)
# Under-developed, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – develop further, perhaps using a 2-level structure for larger section(s) (i.e., including subheadings)
&lt;!-- 3-level --&gt;
# Overly complicated [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|3-level heading structure]] – consider simplifying
&lt;!-- Conceptual --&gt;
# Messy heading structure – needs work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# The headings lack sufficient incision into, and exposition of, the topic
# Revise heading structure to place less emphasis on background concepts and more emphasis on the target topic (i.e., address the sub-title). The draft headings place too much emphasis on background concepts and too little on the relationship between the concepts.
&lt;!-- Other ---&gt;
# Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with 3 to 5 sub-headings for large sections
# The Overview and Conclusion should not use sub-headings
# Use default heading formatting (i.e., avoid additional formatting such as bold, italics, underline, changing the size etc.)
# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings
# &quot;Introduction&quot; heading isn't necessary – provide this information in Overview or move into subsequent sections
# Cover definition(s) in the Overview and/or subsequent sections with embedded inter-wiki link(s) to further information
# Case study doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed case study within relevant sections
# Quiz doesn't need a separate heading; instead embed quiz questions within relevant sections
# Check grammar (e.g,. missing question mark)
# Remove [[wikt:acronym#Noun|acronym]]s from headings
# Remove citations from headings
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure
# Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement
# Good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there is room for improvement
# Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment
# Basic alignment between between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings. Aim to improve.
# Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
# Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
# Very good
# Good
# Basic
# Insufficient
# Hasn't been developed – Needs scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box at the start of this section
# I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest
# Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest
# Put the scenario or case study into a feature box at the start of this section (fixed)
# Make the scenario more practical or down-to-earth; it is currently too abstract
# Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear. It should be obvious to a reader how the scenario illustrates the topic (i.e., the sub-title question). Revise the scenario to make this connection more explicit.
# Add a scenario or case study in a feature box (with an image) at the start of this section to help engage reader interest
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions
# Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections.
# Add a brief, evocative description of the problem/topic
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use present, rather than future, tense
# Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios)
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings
# Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but consider closer alignment
# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings
# Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions
# Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions
# Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section
# Solid development
# Promising development
# Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic
# Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic
# Overly broad/comprehensive; not sufficiently focused/targetted on the topic; this often occurs when genAI content is used by a prompter with insufficient background reading and understanding of the topic and/or insufficient revising and rewriting of genAI content
# Basic development
# Partial development
# Insufficient development
# No development
# Provide more detailed edit summaries
&lt;!-- Scope --&gt;
# The scope is excellent (i.e., not too little/narrow or too big/broad)
# The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title
# It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title
# It is unlikely that all planned aspects can be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title
# All planned aspects cannot reasonably be covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on the most important aspects which address the question in the sub-title
&lt;!-- Writing style --&gt;
# The writing style is clear and easy to follow
# The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise
# The writing style is difficult to follow (e.g., due to vagueness, complex wording, long sentences, long paragraphs, repetition, etc.)
# The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice.
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
# Good balance of theory and research
# Promising balance of theory and research
# Reasonably good coverage of theory; strive to balance the theoretical content with critical review of relevant research
# Balance theoretical content with critical synthesis of relevant research
# Too much theory. Not enough research. Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. 
# Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. 
# Select the best theories about this topic
# Select the best research about this topic
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# Excellent use of citations
# Very good use of citations
# Good use of citations
# Promising use of citations
# Basic use of citations
# Insufficient use of citations
# Non-peer-reviewed sources should be moved to the &quot;External links&quot; section
# Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence
&lt;!-- Citation style --&gt;
# Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials)
# Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] with three or more authors (i.e., FirstAuthor et al., year)
# [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/punctuation/serial-comma APA style uses serial commas][[w:Serial comma|1]][https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should 2][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY 3] (1 min)
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
# ''Avoid providing too much background information''. Aim to briefly summarise general concepts and provide internal links to relevant book chapters and/or Wikipedia pages for further information. Focus most of the chapter on ''directly answering the core question(s)'' posed by the chapter sub-title.
# Direct quotes need page numbers (APA style) – even better, express the idea in your own words
# Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a &quot;down&quot; style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
# Use [https://www.aresearchguide.com/write-in-third-person.html 3rd person perspective], although a case study or feature box could use 1st or 2nd person perspective
# Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., analyze → analyse; behavior → behaviour)
# Move references into the References section. Keep citations in the main body.
# Consider using Studiosity Writing Feedback+ or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft.
&lt;!-- GenAI ---&gt;
# Well done on acknowledging genAI use in the edit summary. Also share link(s) to the conversation, as per the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]].
# Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is well developed
# Conclusion is well underway
# Conclusion is underway
# Conclusion is underdeveloped
# Conclusion hasn't been developed
# What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Excellent - Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited
# Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned
# Relevant figure(s) are presented
# The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear
# A relevant figure is not presented and cited (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a clear, appropriately detailed description that is meaningfully connected with the main text
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text
# Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved
# Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
# Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. ...
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Figure(s) are cited at least once in the main text
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
&lt;!-- Size --&gt;
# Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view
# Consider decreasing image size(s) to make them less dominant
&lt;!-- Creation --&gt;
# Well done on creating and uploading your own image! {{smile}}—this can also be listed on your user page as a social contribution
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Promising in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
# Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
# One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
# Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Keep scenarios brief 
# Basic use of scenario/example/case study
# Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies
Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice.
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Excellent use of quiz question(s)
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
# Place each quiz question in the most relevant section
# Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages
# Placeholder use of quiz question(s)
# Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]]
# Promising use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]]
# Include acknowledgement (e.g., citation(s)) for sources of information presented in the table
# Use APA style for table captions
# Add table caption
# Cite each table at least once in the text
# Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent
# Very good
# Good
# Basic
# Insufficient
# To be developed
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
# At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- Move --&gt;
# Move Wikipedia links to the &quot;See also&quot; section
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the &quot;External links&quot; section
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# All references need in-text citation
# All citations need to be in the References
# Only include references which have been accessed and read
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## alphabetical order
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf doi formatting]
## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable)
## use dois where available instead of other links
## include hyperlinked dois
## page numbers should be separated by an en-dash (–) rather than a hyphen (-)
# A more thorough literature search is recommended. The goal is to identify and use the best academic theory and research about this topic.
# Use APA style or wiki referencing style, but not both (currently, a mixture of referencing styles is used
# Don't cite AI-generated content because it is unreliable and not peer-reviewed. Instead, follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]] which include acknowledging and linking to genAI use in edit summaries, otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity.
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Excellent
## Very good
## Good
## Basic
## One of two link types provided
### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]
### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters)
## Use alphabetical order
## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Excellent
## Very good
## Good
## Basic
## One of two required external links provided
## Move Wikipedia link(s) to the &quot;See also&quot; section
## Move academic sources into the &quot;References&quot; sections and provide in-text citation
## Only include links directly related to the sub-title
## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population
## Good choice of links, but poorly formatted (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Include source in brackets after link
## Use alphabetical order
## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Excellent
# Used effectively
# Very good
# Good
# Basic but effective
# Not created – see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Excellent description about self provided
# Description about self provided
# Brief description about self – consider expanding
# Very brief description about self – consider expanding
# Add description about self
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Link(s) provided to professional profile(s)
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
# Rename the link to the book chapter to make it more user-friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# Add link to book chapter
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&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
# Good – two out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other type of contribution is making:
# One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
#* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
#* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
#* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum
# To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]].
# Are these contributions based on AI-generated content? If so, please follow the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|using genAI guidelines]], otherwise it is a violation of academic integrity.
# Well done on creating and uploading your own image!
# Use a numbered list (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
# Descriptions of contributions could be more precise/accurate/detailed
# Add a brief summary of each contribution
# Remember to sign comments on talk pages
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:58, 26 August 2026 (UTC)

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Template:MEBF]]
* [[Template:MEMF]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]]
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Personal control and the self</title>
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      <text bytes="3253" sha1="ly46zyz2bobbhm5rqk4yvtbe1wmsb6y" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 6: Personal control and the self|sixth}}
{{Notice|The 2026 lecture is in development.}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --&gt;
==Overview==
[[File:Girl with swimming board.jpg|right|250px]]
This lecture discusses:
* personal control beliefs
* the self and its strivings

Take-home messages:
* The core efficacy belief of &quot;I can do it&quot; and the outcome belief of &quot;it will work&quot; lead to competent, enthusiastic functioning
* Exerting self-control over short-term urges is needed to pursue long-term goals; but this capacity is limited and needs replenishment

==Outline==
Personal control beliefs
* Expectancy and control
* Self-efficacy
* Mastery vs helplessness
* Reactance
* Expectancy-value model

Self
* Self strivings
* Self-concept
* Self-identity
* Agency
* Self-regulation

==Readings==
* Chapter 9: Personal control beliefs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]])
* Chapter 10: The self and its strivings ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]])

==Slides==
* [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/12yhu2Z52vL3teHP3hiFrlE5aZU9_HIyNM45sLeGFCFU Personal control beliefs] (Google Slides)
* [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1qKeI_k0tYdTLXGOb2gn-gpsvJgzQQkCT16MgaT4_MZY The self and its strivings] (Google Slides)

==See also==
* [[/Images/]]

; Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Goals and mindsets|Goals and mindsets]] (Previous lecture)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Nature of emotion|Nature of emotion]] (Next lecture)

; Tutorial
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Learned optimism|Learned optimism]]

;Wikipedia
* [[w:Learned helplessness|Learned helplessness]]
* [[w:Looking-glass self|Looking-glass self]]
* [[w:Mastery learning|Mastery learning]]
* [[w:Self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]]
* [[w:Self-concept|Self-concept]]
* [[w:Trier social stress test|Trier social stress test]]

;Wikiversity
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Optimism|Optimism]] (Book chapters)
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pessimism|Pessimism]] (Book chapters)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Reactance|Reactance]] (Book chapter, 2017)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Regulatory focus theory and goal pursuit|Regulatory focus theory and goal pursuit]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self|Self]] (Book chapters)
* [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]] (Book chapters)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Zeigarnik effect|Zeigarnik effect]] (Book chapter, 2015)

==Recording==
* Lecture 6 (2026) TBA
&lt;!--
==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
}}
--&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/joachim_de_posada_says_don_t_eat_the_marshmallow_yet.html Don't eat the marshmallow!] (Joachim de Posada, TED talk, 2009) (6 min) shows a replication of the infamous [[w:Stanford marshmallow experiment|Stanford marshmellow experiment]] by Walter Mischel which found that children who can resist temptation (delay gratification) tend to have better life outcomes.
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}}

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Personal control and the self]]</text>
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      <text bytes="4856" sha1="751u05eiyjuulrge4hc5kof9qh69k67" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello! My name is Zara (''she/her''). 

I am a '''third-year student''' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology with a Breadth Major in Counselling Studies. I am hoping to undertake postgraduate studies in [[wikipedia:Clinical_psychology|clinical psychology]], and I am particularly '''interested in working with children and adolescents'''. 
[[File:Canadian swimmer at 2019 international tournament.jpg|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' As a competitive swimmer, my favourite stroke was butterfly.  ]]
I am currently undertaking the unit [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] at UC. 

Some of my hobbies include:  

* Reading
* [[wikipedia:Swimming|Swimming]] (see Figure 1)

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
I am writing a book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotion dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]] project. Through this chapter I will be exploring the question &quot;what is emotion dysregulation, what are its consequences and how can it be managed?&quot;  

My interest in this topic stems from my experience as a classroom support assistant in a primary school. Within this role, I work with young students to help build emotional literacy and support them in regulating their emotions. I am eager to further my understanding of emotion dysregulation and share this knowledge with others.   

== Social contributions ==

#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805511 Posted in a UCLearn discussion thread to share the areas of motivation and emotion I am interested in exploring this semester.]  (18 Aug. 2026)
#[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=805526 Responded to a peer's discussion post on UCLearn.] (18 Aug. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCancer_screening_and_emotion&amp;diff=2823381&amp;oldid=2762016 Fixed grammatical error to improve clarity.] (20 Aug. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2021%2FTo-do_lists&amp;diff=2823387&amp;oldid=2672363 Made small stylistic correction in formatting.] (20 Aug. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FPain_avoidance_motivation&amp;diff=2823539&amp;oldid=2758910 Recommended a relevant book chapter for inclusion in the 'See also' section.] (20 Aug. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FCoercive_control_in_intimate_partner_violence&amp;diff=2825669&amp;oldid=2811025 Edited a past book chapter's 'See also' section to include a missing source citation in parentheses after the relevant link.] (25 Aug. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FBuilding_therapeutic_alliance&amp;diff=2830378&amp;oldid=2829992 Offered a relevant therapeutic framework that could be included in my peer's book chapter.] (02 Sept. 2026)
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Fear extinction#c-U3285438-20260902052100-Food for thought: Integrating Pavlov's classical conditioning|Suggested integrating a relevant theory to help contextualise key concepts in my peer's book chapter.]] (02 Sept. 2026)
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Sun exposure and protection motivation#c-U3285438-20260903051900-Food for thought: The health belief model|Suggested including a relevant theory (the health belief model) in my peer's book chapter as an additional lens for understanding health behaviour change]] (03 Sept. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FExtended_process_model_of_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2832166&amp;oldid=2830650 Added the recommended ''External links'' heading to a peer's book chapter through a direct edit.] (08 Sept. 2026)
#[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Extended process model of emotion regulation#c-U3285438-20260908043300-Recommendation for 'see also' section|Provided feedback on a book chapter's talk page. Recommended relocating the current ''See also'' links to the ''External links'' section and suggested a relevant chapter as an alternative.]] (08 Sept. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&amp;diff=2832537&amp;oldid=2831095 Added the recommended ''See also'' heading to a peer's book chapter through a direct edit.] (10 Sept. 2026)
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&amp;diff=2832538&amp;oldid=2830994 Suggested a relevant book chapter to link in the ''See also'' section via the book chapter's talk page]. (10 Sept. 2026)</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment</title>
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      <text bytes="46358" sha1="a8aeywme0ds9b15tfdlrma1tjuhuo0w" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) {{ic|APA style uses lower case for names of disorders}}: What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
&lt;br&gt;
* PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).
* PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).
* In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).
* Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is largely shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear, or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025).

PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[w:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Predict the outcome

Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. 
Andriy expects:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.
* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===

PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption contributes to symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 2 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).  

[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]

To manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). 

While this avoidance approach may produce short-term relief from acute anxiety, it prevents the cognitive and emotional exposure to the trauma event, something that psychologists believe is important to help integrate the trauma. (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Instead of helping to resolve the distress, the act of avoidance helps to freeze the traumatic memory network, in turn ensuring that intrusive trauma reminders such as flashbacks, continue to trigger extreme levels of distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). López-Ojeda and Hurley (2022) This suggests that effective adaptive emotional processing is essential because, without it, the underlying fear conditions remain, trapping the individual in a state of chronic stress.

Empirical evidence supports this relationship. In a 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142), regression analysis demonstrated that emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in perceived PTSD symptoms, including the non-acceptance of emotional responses, the lack of access to treatment strategies, and impulse control difficulties. When combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these emotional factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13,92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).
=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Facilitating emotional processing in clinical settings can be challenging. Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) or [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) require PTSD patients to actively engage with highly traumatic and distressing memories in order to generate and promote fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, because trauma memories are often distressing, many patients find themselves unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation required for this therapeutic change. (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This difficulty then contributes to treatment resistance, non-response and attrition. Research reports that 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This avoidance will be context dependent, however contemporary literature involving military veterans with PTSD suggests that it is compounded by some age dependent factors and comorbid behaviours; younger patients facing heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, which in turn leads to a further decline in emotional regulation ability (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] further complicates clinical engagement. Historically, psychological theory views baseline emotional 

[[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]

regulation difficulties as a major barrier to effective trauma processing, requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, van Toorenburg et al. (2020) suggest that recent research indicates that emotion regulation is not a fixed limitation, but has a degree of dynamic capacity. Instead, standard trauma-focused treatments may directly improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing. This suggests that the primary difficulty in PTSD treatment is not patients lacking emotional regulatory skills. Instead, it is more about the therapy mechanism of helping the patient safely approach and process the traumatic memory itself (van Toorenburg et al., 2020).

Cultural context is also an important factor in why treatment can be difficult. Doctoral work is underway at the [[University of Canberra]], exploring and addressing cultural localisation and integrating cognitive rehabilitation into immersive therapy. As depicted in Figure 3, this includes future clinical trials based on the US-centric ''Bravemind''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; VRET platform, using Australian military veterans with different operational backgrounds and rules of engagement than their United States counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This helps advance a new frontier in precision mental health by integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation. This supports motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025).

=== Why avoidance matters ===
Avoidance is a central psychological mechanism that maintains PTSD. Trauma reminders can trigger powerful emotional activations, leading individuals to avoid thoughts, feelings, places or situations associated with the traumatic event (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). While this immediate avoidance behaviour can create short-term relief, it reinforces an avoidance cycle and corresponding avoidance behaviour (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

The treatment effect of this behaviour is that the avoidance cycle blocks opportunities for corrective learning. As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

Immersive therapies theory seeks to disrupt the self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing a controlled, supportive therapy and digital environment. By helping patients safely confront trauma cues, the immersive approach is theorised to encourage active coping behaviour and facilitate precise emotional confrontation and memory reconsolidation (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).   
== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===
Immersive therapy methodologies can now leverage the latest advances in technology, including artificial intelligence and processing power reflected in [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms. These platforms encompass [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), which allow customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).
[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]

This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted above in Figure 4, now supports two primary clinical therapy applications: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) and Multi-Modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).

VRET allows therapists to reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded and controlled environments. At the same time, 3MDR expands this framework by introducing side-by-side, active partnership, where a patient walks on a treadmill facing a panoramic virtual display rather than sitting with a clinician. This sensory activation creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===
From a clinical perspective, PTSD can be characterised by [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], where, amongst broader symptoms, individuals lose the capacity to modulate intense feelings of guilt, fear and shame(Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025). Westphal et al. (2017)This suggests the regulatory deficit forces individuals to adopt narrow, highly avoidant coping strategies, leaving what military veterans might describe as being trapped in persistent states of ‘''[[w:Combat_readiness|combat readiness]]’''. This state of chronic sensory and emotional arousal is maintained because traumatic memories remain isolated from the brain’s executive networks (Westphal et al., 2017).  Successful therapeutic emotional recovery requires activating the Traumatic Memory Network (TMN), engaging the brain’s [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). The immersive therapies outlined above achieve this TMN activation by delivering highly personalised cues, including patient-selected images and music. These cues help safely activate and retrieve trauma memory and initiate positive emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===
Behavioural and cognitive avoidance are the primary barriers to trauma recovery as they prevent corrective, safe information from being incorporated into the trauma network (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies attempt to bypass this self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing activating, side-by-side coaching partnerships with the clinician and patient (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).  Figure 5, below, contrasts the avoidance cycle with new processing outcomes. In 3MDR therapy, patients harnessed to a treadmill and walking towards a visual scene functions as a literal Fear Antagonistic Action (FAA) (de Haart et al., 2026). By physically walking towards the trauma stimulus rather than pulling away, patients engage in active approach behaviour. This helps dilute the natural tendency to avoid distress and serves to convert a state of passive helplessness into one of active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 5'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on traditional exposure therapy theory by facilitating inhibitory learning, a process in which the patient develops a new, safe association that actively suppresses the original conditioned fear response (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). To optimise fear extinction, clinical sessions use extended reality environments to maximise the prediction errors generated for the patient by disconfirming the patient’s catastrophic expectations (de Haart et al., 2026).

As evidence that it is the psychological mechanism involved that is driving fear extinction, discuss traditional exercise-augmentation literature, which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, low-intensity walking in 3MDR therapy (&lt; 4 km/h) is ineffective for generating BDNF secretion. This suggests that different mechanisms of action may be involved, with benefits primarily driven by the behavioural approach of Fear Augmenting Actions and the cognitive restructuring that occurs.

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===
Traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[wikipedia:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR will use dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 6). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As memory processing occurs, some emerging research suggests that linguistic shifts also become observable (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). Through [[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use. This was also accompanied by a steady increase in sentence word counts, demonstrating a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? ==
Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===
The virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). By delivering the tailored trauma stimulus, VRET can bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that would typically prevent a PTSD patient from successfully engaging in traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026).

Meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy of VRET points to substantial within-group PTSD symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD]] Scale (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). In practical terms, these scales typically view score changes of +/-10-20 points as clinically significant and could mean the difference between a patient suffering severe functional impairment and one with mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  While comparative effects against active PTSD treatments remain modest, VRET appears to present a highly engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026)

=== Presence and emotional activation ===
VR's distinguishing therapeutic power is its ability to use a virtual environment to generate a presence effect, or the psychological illusion of being there. Multisensory technology can then amplify this state, as shown in Figure 3, by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This multisensory immersion triggers controlled emotional activation, which is theorised to allow patients to achieve psychological habituation by virtually transferring the avoided traumatic emotions into a safe space (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Accordingly, improved emotion regulation can then act as a precursor to optimism. This, according to the positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]], creates a positive dynamic spiral of emotional states that expands an individual’s cognitive flexibility and actively reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).

=== 3MDR ===
Multi-modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) takes elements of the established VR construct and introduces a highly activating context. It is designed to transform treatment from a sedentary, face-to-face environment into a side-by-side, mobile partnership in which the PTSD patient and the clinical therapist face the virtual display and events together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). The intervention therapy is based around a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Recent research suggesting the approach may have some breakthrough potential for treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR demonstrating non-inferiority with large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six months (''n''=134, ''d''=1.0) and high acceptability reflected in a dropout rate 7-20% which in military populations is low in comparison to drop out rates up to 48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b)

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===
Emotional activation is the psychological outcome of embodied cognition, where mind-body interactions with the environment can modify cognitive states. Treadmill walking towards a trauma stimulus serves as the fear-antagonistic action, which in turn converts passive avoidance into an active approach behaviour (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Behaviour change in recovery is also reflected in positive linguistic shifts, as discussed previously.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? ==
Immersive therapies show cognitive and empirical gains by systematically reducing symptom severity, enhancing emotional engagement, and disrupting [[w:Maladaptation|maladaptive]], self-reinforcing avoidance cycles (Lopes et al., 2025). By fostering a powerful sense of presence, these immersion technologies help facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation (Lopes et al., 2025). On a cognitive level, treadmill-assisted therapy helps creative divergent thinking and break free of negative and repetitive trauma narratives. At the same time, multisensory virtual environments (particularly audio, visual, and haptic) can produce notable and sustained clinical improvements (Lopes et al., 2025). Table 1, below, summarises the main effects and psychological mechanisms referenced in this wiki page. 

'''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms
=== What are the costs and limitations? ===
The ability to translate small immersion trials into mainstream PTSD treatment options remains limited by high degrees of methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, a lack of long-term data and generalisability issues (Felemban et al., 2026). In addition, practical disruptions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Extended reality structural obstacles such as workforce training and the costs of equipment acquisition and technology sustainment must also be considered. Basic VR systems had estimated annual costs of around US$3,500 per provider headset per year, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). For example, in the [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]], VR testing was limited to five localised medical centres in 2017 but has since scaled to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff. While early spending on these environments was targeted at PTSD treatments, current funding cycles include over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024).

These growing treatment interventions and trends have also been the subject of financial analysis, with market research suggesting the global market for PTSD virtual reality therapy was approximately US$1.59 billion in 2025 and is forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032 (Stratistics MRC, 2025). The main factors driving this increase are growing awareness of mental health issues (Driver), the absence of standard clinical protocols (Restraint), and regional differences (Threat). The exposure therapy segment is expected to be the largest growth segment, with the civilian trauma segment predicted to be the fastest-growing (Stratistics MRC, 2025).

Ultimately, these limitations, challenges and forecasts all point to a paradigm shift, one that is moving away from a narrow, disease model of symptom reduction, towards one of holistic wellness. One that prioritises post-traumatic growth, positive emotional values and regaining optimism as benchmarks of trauma recovery (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room.

In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' ?
2.	What does it '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 6.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill.

By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
PTSD can have devastating effects on individuals and their wider family and social networks. Trauma can be caused by a range of factors in both civilian and military contexts. PTSD disrupts the ability for effective emotional processing, trapping individuals in self-reinforcing cycles of avoidance. Immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR help break this cycle by shifting clinical therapy approaches from passive, sedentary activities to active, embodied behaviours. Immersive technologies are only therapy delivery tools; they are not the psychological mechanisms that drive emotional and physical change.

The core psychological mechanisms include inhibitory learning, which disconfirms threat appraisals and expectations and thereby maximises prediction error.  Working memory taxation, involving dual-attention tasks that compete for limited cognitive resources, serves as a mechanism to reduce the vividness of trauma memories. Memory reconsolidation mechanisms, driven by prediction error and memory taxation, then allow memories to be retrieved in a more labile, malleable state. These emotional mechanisms are also enabled by embodied cognition, which leverages physical movement on treadmills towards a threat to alter the internal threat assessments and generate divergent thinking.   

While the empirical evidence appears to show positive and substantial symptom reduction as reflected above in traditional PTSD scores (CAPS and PCL-5) and the lower therapy attrition rates, there are limitations and challenges. The ability to transfer these immersive therapies into mainstream PTSD treatment remains challenged by small sample sizes, procedural heterogeneity, and a lack of long-term data. However, the increasing deployment of immersive capabilities by large government departments such as the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and their anticipated growth to 2032, as shown above, demonstrate confidence and willingness to invest in the capability. Demonstrating in a rigorous, scientific manner why these immersive therapies work will be an important piece of work if PTSD therapies are to ensure they are not applying false generalisations and wasting resources on unproven outcomes.

The shift away from a disease model to one of holistic wellness is positive. By prioritising a focus on post-traumatic growth and helping people living with PTSD regain that vital sense of optimism, immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR can help PTSD patients actively re-write their trauma networks, transitioning from passive victims to active participants in their recovery journey. This brings human, financial, and productivity benefits for the individual, their families, and the broader community.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
{{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}}

[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
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'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs &amp; Collaborations&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

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__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) {{ic|APA style uses lower case for names of disorders}}: What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
&lt;br&gt;
* PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).
* PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).
* In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).
* Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is largely shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear, or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025).

PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[w:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Predict the outcome

Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. 
Andriy expects:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.
* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===

PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption contributes to symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 2 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).  

[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]

To manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). 

While this avoidance approach may produce short-term relief from acute anxiety, it prevents the cognitive and emotional exposure to the trauma event, something that psychologists believe is important to help integrate the trauma. (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Instead of helping to resolve the distress, the act of avoidance helps to freeze the traumatic memory network, in turn ensuring that intrusive trauma reminders such as flashbacks, continue to trigger extreme levels of distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). López-Ojeda and Hurley (2022) This suggests that effective adaptive emotional processing is essential because, without it, the underlying fear conditions remain, trapping the individual in a state of chronic stress.

Empirical evidence supports this relationship. In a 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142), regression analysis demonstrated that emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in perceived PTSD symptoms, including the non-acceptance of emotional responses, the lack of access to treatment strategies, and impulse control difficulties. When combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these emotional factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13,92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).
=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Facilitating emotional processing in clinical settings can be challenging. Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) or [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) require PTSD patients to actively engage with highly traumatic and distressing memories in order to generate and promote fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, because trauma memories are often distressing, many patients find themselves unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation required for this therapeutic change. (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This difficulty then contributes to treatment resistance, non-response and attrition. Research reports that 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This avoidance will be context dependent, however contemporary literature involving military veterans with PTSD suggests that it is compounded by some age dependent factors and comorbid behaviours; younger patients facing heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, which in turn leads to a further decline in emotional regulation ability (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] further complicates clinical engagement. Historically, psychological theory views baseline emotional 

[[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]

regulation difficulties as a major barrier to effective trauma processing, requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, van Toorenburg et al. (2020) suggest that recent research indicates that emotion regulation is not a fixed limitation, but has a degree of dynamic capacity. Instead, standard trauma-focused treatments may directly improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing. This suggests that the primary difficulty in PTSD treatment is not patients lacking emotional regulatory skills. Instead, it is more about the therapy mechanism of helping the patient safely approach and process the traumatic memory itself (van Toorenburg et al., 2020).

Cultural context is also an important factor in why treatment can be difficult. Doctoral work is underway at the [[University of Canberra]], exploring and addressing cultural localisation and integrating cognitive rehabilitation into immersive therapy. As depicted in Figure 3, this includes future clinical trials based on the US-centric ''Bravemind''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; VRET platform, using Australian military veterans with different operational backgrounds and rules of engagement than their United States counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This helps advance a new frontier in precision mental health by integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation. This supports motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025).

=== Why avoidance matters ===
Avoidance is a central psychological mechanism that maintains PTSD. Trauma reminders can trigger powerful emotional activations, leading individuals to avoid thoughts, feelings, places or situations associated with the traumatic event (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). While this immediate avoidance behaviour can create short-term relief, it reinforces an avoidance cycle and corresponding avoidance behaviour (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

The treatment effect of this behaviour is that the avoidance cycle blocks opportunities for corrective learning. As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

Immersive therapies theory seeks to disrupt the self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing a controlled, supportive therapy and digital environment. By helping patients safely confront trauma cues, the immersive approach is theorised to encourage active coping behaviour and facilitate precise emotional confrontation and memory reconsolidation (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).   
== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===
Immersive therapy methodologies can now leverage the latest advances in technology, including artificial intelligence and processing power reflected in [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms. These platforms encompass [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), which allow customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).
[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]

This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted above in Figure 4, now supports two primary clinical therapy applications: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) and Multi-Modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).

VRET allows therapists to reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded and controlled environments. At the same time, 3MDR expands this framework by introducing side-by-side, active partnership, where a patient walks on a treadmill facing a panoramic virtual display rather than sitting with a clinician. This sensory activation creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===
From a clinical perspective, PTSD can be characterised by [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], where, amongst broader symptoms, individuals lose the capacity to modulate intense feelings of guilt, fear and shame(Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025). Westphal et al. (2017)This suggests the regulatory deficit forces individuals to adopt narrow, highly avoidant coping strategies, leaving what military veterans might describe as being trapped in persistent states of ‘''[[w:Combat_readiness|combat readiness]]’''. This state of chronic sensory and emotional arousal is maintained because traumatic memories remain isolated from the brain’s executive networks (Westphal et al., 2017).  Successful therapeutic emotional recovery requires activating the Traumatic Memory Network (TMN), engaging the brain’s [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). The immersive therapies outlined above achieve this TMN activation by delivering highly personalised cues, including patient-selected images and music. These cues help safely activate and retrieve trauma memory and initiate positive emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===
Behavioural and cognitive avoidance are the primary barriers to trauma recovery as they prevent corrective, safe information from being incorporated into the trauma network (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies attempt to bypass this self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing activating, side-by-side coaching partnerships with the clinician and patient (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).  Figure 5, below, contrasts the avoidance cycle with new processing outcomes. In 3MDR therapy, patients harnessed to a treadmill and walking towards a visual scene functions as a literal Fear Antagonistic Action (FAA) (de Haart et al., 2026). By physically walking towards the trauma stimulus rather than pulling away, patients engage in active approach behaviour. This helps dilute the natural tendency to avoid distress and serves to convert a state of passive helplessness into one of active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 5'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on traditional exposure therapy theory by facilitating inhibitory learning, a process in which the patient develops a new, safe association that actively suppresses the original conditioned fear response (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). To optimise fear extinction, clinical sessions use extended reality environments to maximise the prediction errors generated for the patient by disconfirming the patient’s catastrophic expectations (de Haart et al., 2026).

As evidence that it is the psychological mechanism involved that is driving fear extinction, discuss traditional exercise-augmentation literature, which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, low-intensity walking in 3MDR therapy (&lt; 4 km/h) is ineffective for generating BDNF secretion. This suggests that different mechanisms of action may be involved, with benefits primarily driven by the behavioural approach of Fear Augmenting Actions and the cognitive restructuring that occurs.

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===
Traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[wikipedia:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR will use dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 6). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As memory processing occurs, some emerging research suggests that linguistic shifts also become observable (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). Through [[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use. This was also accompanied by a steady increase in sentence word counts, demonstrating a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? ==
Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===
The virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). By delivering the tailored trauma stimulus, VRET can bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that would typically prevent a PTSD patient from successfully engaging in traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026).

Meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy of VRET points to substantial within-group PTSD symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD]] Scale (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). In practical terms, these scales typically view score changes of +/-10-20 points as clinically significant and could mean the difference between a patient suffering severe functional impairment and one with mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  While comparative effects against active PTSD treatments remain modest, VRET appears to present a highly engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026)

=== Presence and emotional activation ===
VR's distinguishing therapeutic power is its ability to use a virtual environment to generate a presence effect, or the psychological illusion of being there. Multisensory technology can then amplify this state, as shown in Figure 3, by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This multisensory immersion triggers controlled emotional activation, which is theorised to allow patients to achieve psychological habituation by virtually transferring the avoided traumatic emotions into a safe space (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Accordingly, improved emotion regulation can then act as a precursor to optimism. This, according to the positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]], creates a positive dynamic spiral of emotional states that expands an individual’s cognitive flexibility and actively reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).

=== 3MDR ===
Multi-modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) takes elements of the established VR construct and introduces a highly activating context. It is designed to transform treatment from a sedentary, face-to-face environment into a side-by-side, mobile partnership in which the PTSD patient and the clinical therapist face the virtual display and events together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). The intervention therapy is based around a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Recent research suggesting the approach may have some breakthrough potential for treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR demonstrating non-inferiority with large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six months (''n''=134, ''d''=1.0) and high acceptability reflected in a dropout rate 7-20% which in military populations is low in comparison to drop out rates up to 48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b)

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===
Emotional activation is the psychological outcome of embodied cognition, where mind-body interactions with the environment can modify cognitive states. Treadmill walking towards a trauma stimulus serves as the fear-antagonistic action, which in turn converts passive avoidance into an active approach behaviour (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Behaviour change in recovery is also reflected in positive linguistic shifts, as discussed previously.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? ==
Immersive therapies show cognitive and empirical gains by systematically reducing symptom severity, enhancing emotional engagement, and disrupting [[w:Maladaptation|maladaptive]], self-reinforcing avoidance cycles (Lopes et al., 2025). By fostering a powerful sense of presence, these immersion technologies help facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation (Lopes et al., 2025). On a cognitive level, treadmill-assisted therapy helps creative divergent thinking and break free of negative and repetitive trauma narratives. At the same time, multisensory virtual environments (particularly audio, visual, and haptic) can produce notable and sustained clinical improvements (Lopes et al., 2025). Table 1, below, summarises the main effects and psychological mechanisms referenced in this wiki page. 

'''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional Trauma-Focused Exposure'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive and Motion Assisted Approaches'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanism'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Therapeutic Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''.
Face to face, seated, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.'''''
Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity to recall and describe event
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Cues can be highly tailored to individual scenario. Clinician is aware.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers by using sensory cues to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing''' '''and attention'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration, fear habituation and cognitive restructuring.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time approach using affective labelling and dual attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory Tax.'''''
Working memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement and Adherence'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
High dropout rates ranging from 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive and generated lower dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Controllable, immersive environment via presence and safety.
|}

=== What are the costs and limitations? ===
The ability to translate small immersion trials into mainstream PTSD treatment options remains limited by high degrees of methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, a lack of long-term data and generalisability issues (Felemban et al., 2026). In addition, practical disruptions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Extended reality structural obstacles such as workforce training and the costs of equipment acquisition and technology sustainment must also be considered. Basic VR systems had estimated annual costs of around US$3,500 per provider headset per year, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). For example, in the [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]], VR testing was limited to five localised medical centres in 2017 but has since scaled to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff. While early spending on these environments was targeted at PTSD treatments, current funding cycles include over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024).

These growing treatment interventions and trends have also been the subject of financial analysis, with market research suggesting the global market for PTSD virtual reality therapy was approximately US$1.59 billion in 2025 and is forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032 (Stratistics MRC, 2025). The main factors driving this increase are growing awareness of mental health issues (Driver), the absence of standard clinical protocols (Restraint), and regional differences (Threat). The exposure therapy segment is expected to be the largest growth segment, with the civilian trauma segment predicted to be the fastest-growing (Stratistics MRC, 2025).

Ultimately, these limitations, challenges and forecasts all point to a paradigm shift, one that is moving away from a narrow, disease model of symptom reduction, towards one of holistic wellness. One that prioritises post-traumatic growth, positive emotional values and regaining optimism as benchmarks of trauma recovery (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room.

In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' ?
2.	What does it '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 6.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill.

By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
PTSD can have devastating effects on individuals and their wider family and social networks. Trauma can be caused by a range of factors in both civilian and military contexts. PTSD disrupts the ability for effective emotional processing, trapping individuals in self-reinforcing cycles of avoidance. Immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR help break this cycle by shifting clinical therapy approaches from passive, sedentary activities to active, embodied behaviours. Immersive technologies are only therapy delivery tools; they are not the psychological mechanisms that drive emotional and physical change.

The core psychological mechanisms include inhibitory learning, which disconfirms threat appraisals and expectations and thereby maximises prediction error.  Working memory taxation, involving dual-attention tasks that compete for limited cognitive resources, serves as a mechanism to reduce the vividness of trauma memories. Memory reconsolidation mechanisms, driven by prediction error and memory taxation, then allow memories to be retrieved in a more labile, malleable state. These emotional mechanisms are also enabled by embodied cognition, which leverages physical movement on treadmills towards a threat to alter the internal threat assessments and generate divergent thinking.   

While the empirical evidence appears to show positive and substantial symptom reduction as reflected above in traditional PTSD scores (CAPS and PCL-5) and the lower therapy attrition rates, there are limitations and challenges. The ability to transfer these immersive therapies into mainstream PTSD treatment remains challenged by small sample sizes, procedural heterogeneity, and a lack of long-term data. However, the increasing deployment of immersive capabilities by large government departments such as the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and their anticipated growth to 2032, as shown above, demonstrate confidence and willingness to invest in the capability. Demonstrating in a rigorous, scientific manner why these immersive therapies work will be an important piece of work if PTSD therapies are to ensure they are not applying false generalisations and wasting resources on unproven outcomes.

The shift away from a disease model to one of holistic wellness is positive. By prioritising a focus on post-traumatic growth and helping people living with PTSD regain that vital sense of optimism, immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR can help PTSD patients actively re-write their trauma networks, transitioning from passive victims to active participants in their recovery journey. This brings human, financial, and productivity benefits for the individual, their families, and the broader community.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
{{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}}

[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
{{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}}

'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs &amp; Collaborations&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Overview */ I have started a major chapter redraft and restructure. This is based on initial chapter feedback (discussion page). I think I have some duplication of arguments and have an opportunity to reduce the word count. This first section moved the previous cost scenario data; I will eventually incorporate that into the costs and limitations narrative below. Replaced the opening scenario with a more relevant one that should be more powerful in capturing attention. Reduced intro section.</comment>
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      <text bytes="48311" sha1="hdyyqv1zo9cib8gzjea80hmea9gre1g" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies'''

A soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment.

Learn about immersive therapy and Andriy’s experience in the chapter below.{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]]  (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence say about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Predict the outcome

Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. 
Andriy expects:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.
* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===

PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption contributes to symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 2 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).  

[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]

To manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). 

While this avoidance approach may produce short-term relief from acute anxiety, it prevents the cognitive and emotional exposure to the trauma event, something that psychologists believe is important to help integrate the trauma. (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Instead of helping to resolve the distress, the act of avoidance helps to freeze the traumatic memory network, in turn ensuring that intrusive trauma reminders such as flashbacks, continue to trigger extreme levels of distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). López-Ojeda and Hurley (2022) This suggests that effective adaptive emotional processing is essential because, without it, the underlying fear conditions remain, trapping the individual in a state of chronic stress.

Empirical evidence supports this relationship. In a 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142), regression analysis demonstrated that emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in perceived PTSD symptoms, including the non-acceptance of emotional responses, the lack of access to treatment strategies, and impulse control difficulties. When combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these emotional factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13,92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).
=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Facilitating emotional processing in clinical settings can be challenging. Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) or [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) require PTSD patients to actively engage with highly traumatic and distressing memories in order to generate and promote fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, because trauma memories are often distressing, many patients find themselves unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation required for this therapeutic change. (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This difficulty then contributes to treatment resistance, non-response and attrition. Research reports that 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This avoidance will be context dependent, however contemporary literature involving military veterans with PTSD suggests that it is compounded by some age dependent factors and comorbid behaviours; younger patients facing heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, which in turn leads to a further decline in emotional regulation ability (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] further complicates clinical engagement. Historically, psychological theory views baseline emotional 

[[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]

regulation difficulties as a major barrier to effective trauma processing, requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, van Toorenburg et al. (2020) suggest that recent research indicates that emotion regulation is not a fixed limitation, but has a degree of dynamic capacity. Instead, standard trauma-focused treatments may directly improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing. This suggests that the primary difficulty in PTSD treatment is not patients lacking emotional regulatory skills. Instead, it is more about the therapy mechanism of helping the patient safely approach and process the traumatic memory itself (van Toorenburg et al., 2020).

Cultural context is also an important factor in why treatment can be difficult. Doctoral work is underway at the [[University of Canberra]], exploring and addressing cultural localisation and integrating cognitive rehabilitation into immersive therapy. As depicted in Figure 3, this includes future clinical trials based on the US-centric ''Bravemind''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; VRET platform, using Australian military veterans with different operational backgrounds and rules of engagement than their United States counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This helps advance a new frontier in precision mental health by integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation. This supports motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025).

=== Why avoidance matters ===
Avoidance is a central psychological mechanism that maintains PTSD. Trauma reminders can trigger powerful emotional activations, leading individuals to avoid thoughts, feelings, places or situations associated with the traumatic event (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). While this immediate avoidance behaviour can create short-term relief, it reinforces an avoidance cycle and corresponding avoidance behaviour (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

The treatment effect of this behaviour is that the avoidance cycle blocks opportunities for corrective learning. As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

Immersive therapies theory seeks to disrupt the self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing a controlled, supportive therapy and digital environment. By helping patients safely confront trauma cues, the immersive approach is theorised to encourage active coping behaviour and facilitate precise emotional confrontation and memory reconsolidation (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).   
== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===
Immersive therapy methodologies can now leverage the latest advances in technology, including artificial intelligence and processing power reflected in [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms. These platforms encompass [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), which allow customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).
[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]

This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted above in Figure 4, now supports two primary clinical therapy applications: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) and Multi-Modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).

VRET allows therapists to reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded and controlled environments. At the same time, 3MDR expands this framework by introducing side-by-side, active partnership, where a patient walks on a treadmill facing a panoramic virtual display rather than sitting with a clinician. This sensory activation creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===
From a clinical perspective, PTSD can be characterised by [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], where, amongst broader symptoms, individuals lose the capacity to modulate intense feelings of guilt, fear and shame(Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025). Westphal et al. (2017)This suggests the regulatory deficit forces individuals to adopt narrow, highly avoidant coping strategies, leaving what military veterans might describe as being trapped in persistent states of ‘''[[w:Combat_readiness|combat readiness]]’''. This state of chronic sensory and emotional arousal is maintained because traumatic memories remain isolated from the brain’s executive networks (Westphal et al., 2017).  Successful therapeutic emotional recovery requires activating the Traumatic Memory Network (TMN), engaging the brain’s [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). The immersive therapies outlined above achieve this TMN activation by delivering highly personalised cues, including patient-selected images and music. These cues help safely activate and retrieve trauma memory and initiate positive emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===
Behavioural and cognitive avoidance are the primary barriers to trauma recovery as they prevent corrective, safe information from being incorporated into the trauma network (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies attempt to bypass this self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing activating, side-by-side coaching partnerships with the clinician and patient (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).  Figure 5, below, contrasts the avoidance cycle with new processing outcomes. In 3MDR therapy, patients harnessed to a treadmill and walking towards a visual scene functions as a literal Fear Antagonistic Action (FAA) (de Haart et al., 2026). By physically walking towards the trauma stimulus rather than pulling away, patients engage in active approach behaviour. This helps dilute the natural tendency to avoid distress and serves to convert a state of passive helplessness into one of active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 5'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on traditional exposure therapy theory by facilitating inhibitory learning, a process in which the patient develops a new, safe association that actively suppresses the original conditioned fear response (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). To optimise fear extinction, clinical sessions use extended reality environments to maximise the prediction errors generated for the patient by disconfirming the patient’s catastrophic expectations (de Haart et al., 2026).

As evidence that it is the psychological mechanism involved that is driving fear extinction, discuss traditional exercise-augmentation literature, which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, low-intensity walking in 3MDR therapy (&lt; 4 km/h) is ineffective for generating BDNF secretion. This suggests that different mechanisms of action may be involved, with benefits primarily driven by the behavioural approach of Fear Augmenting Actions and the cognitive restructuring that occurs.

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===
Traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[wikipedia:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR will use dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 6). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As memory processing occurs, some emerging research suggests that linguistic shifts also become observable (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). Through [[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use. This was also accompanied by a steady increase in sentence word counts, demonstrating a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? ==
Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===
The virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). By delivering the tailored trauma stimulus, VRET can bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that would typically prevent a PTSD patient from successfully engaging in traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026).

Meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy of VRET points to substantial within-group PTSD symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD]] Scale (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). In practical terms, these scales typically view score changes of +/-10-20 points as clinically significant and could mean the difference between a patient suffering severe functional impairment and one with mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  While comparative effects against active PTSD treatments remain modest, VRET appears to present a highly engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026)

=== Presence and emotional activation ===
VR's distinguishing therapeutic power is its ability to use a virtual environment to generate a presence effect, or the psychological illusion of being there. Multisensory technology can then amplify this state, as shown in Figure 3, by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This multisensory immersion triggers controlled emotional activation, which is theorised to allow patients to achieve psychological habituation by virtually transferring the avoided traumatic emotions into a safe space (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Accordingly, improved emotion regulation can then act as a precursor to optimism. This, according to the positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]], creates a positive dynamic spiral of emotional states that expands an individual’s cognitive flexibility and actively reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).

=== 3MDR ===
Multi-modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) takes elements of the established VR construct and introduces a highly activating context. It is designed to transform treatment from a sedentary, face-to-face environment into a side-by-side, mobile partnership in which the PTSD patient and the clinical therapist face the virtual display and events together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). The intervention therapy is based around a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Recent research suggesting the approach may have some breakthrough potential for treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR demonstrating non-inferiority with large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six months (''n''=134, ''d''=1.0) and high acceptability reflected in a dropout rate 7-20% which in military populations is low in comparison to drop out rates up to 48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b)

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===
Emotional activation is the psychological outcome of embodied cognition, where mind-body interactions with the environment can modify cognitive states. Treadmill walking towards a trauma stimulus serves as the fear-antagonistic action, which in turn converts passive avoidance into an active approach behaviour (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Behaviour change in recovery is also reflected in positive linguistic shifts, as discussed previously.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? ==
Immersive therapies show cognitive and empirical gains by systematically reducing symptom severity, enhancing emotional engagement, and disrupting [[w:Maladaptation|maladaptive]], self-reinforcing avoidance cycles (Lopes et al., 2025). By fostering a powerful sense of presence, these immersion technologies help facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation (Lopes et al., 2025). On a cognitive level, treadmill-assisted therapy helps creative divergent thinking and break free of negative and repetitive trauma narratives. At the same time, multisensory virtual environments (particularly audio, visual, and haptic) can produce notable and sustained clinical improvements (Lopes et al., 2025). Table 1, below, summarises the main effects and psychological mechanisms referenced in this wiki page. 

'''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional Trauma-Focused Exposure'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive and Motion Assisted Approaches'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanism'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Therapeutic Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''.
Face to face, seated, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.'''''
Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity to recall and describe event
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Cues can be highly tailored to individual scenario. Clinician is aware.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers by using sensory cues to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing''' '''and attention'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration, fear habituation and cognitive restructuring.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time approach using affective labelling and dual attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory Tax.'''''
Working memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement and Adherence'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
High dropout rates ranging from 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive and generated lower dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Controllable, immersive environment via presence and safety.
|}

=== What are the costs and limitations? ===

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) : What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
&lt;br&gt;
* PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).
* PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).
* In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).
* Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The ability to translate small immersion trials into mainstream PTSD treatment options remains limited by high degrees of methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, a lack of long-term data and generalisability issues (Felemban et al., 2026). In addition, practical disruptions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Extended reality structural obstacles such as workforce training and the costs of equipment acquisition and technology sustainment must also be considered. Basic VR systems had estimated annual costs of around US$3,500 per provider headset per year, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). For example, in the [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]], VR testing was limited to five localised medical centres in 2017 but has since scaled to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff. While early spending on these environments was targeted at PTSD treatments, current funding cycles include over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024).

These growing treatment interventions and trends have also been the subject of financial analysis, with market research suggesting the global market for PTSD virtual reality therapy was approximately US$1.59 billion in 2025 and is forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032 (Stratistics MRC, 2025). The main factors driving this increase are growing awareness of mental health issues (Driver), the absence of standard clinical protocols (Restraint), and regional differences (Threat). The exposure therapy segment is expected to be the largest growth segment, with the civilian trauma segment predicted to be the fastest-growing (Stratistics MRC, 2025).

Ultimately, these limitations, challenges and forecasts all point to a paradigm shift, one that is moving away from a narrow, disease model of symptom reduction, towards one of holistic wellness. One that prioritises post-traumatic growth, positive emotional values and regaining optimism as benchmarks of trauma recovery (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room.

In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' ?
2.	What does it '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 6.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill.

By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
PTSD can have devastating effects on individuals and their wider family and social networks. Trauma can be caused by a range of factors in both civilian and military contexts. PTSD disrupts the ability for effective emotional processing, trapping individuals in self-reinforcing cycles of avoidance. Immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR help break this cycle by shifting clinical therapy approaches from passive, sedentary activities to active, embodied behaviours. Immersive technologies are only therapy delivery tools; they are not the psychological mechanisms that drive emotional and physical change.

The core psychological mechanisms include inhibitory learning, which disconfirms threat appraisals and expectations and thereby maximises prediction error.  Working memory taxation, involving dual-attention tasks that compete for limited cognitive resources, serves as a mechanism to reduce the vividness of trauma memories. Memory reconsolidation mechanisms, driven by prediction error and memory taxation, then allow memories to be retrieved in a more labile, malleable state. These emotional mechanisms are also enabled by embodied cognition, which leverages physical movement on treadmills towards a threat to alter the internal threat assessments and generate divergent thinking.   

While the empirical evidence appears to show positive and substantial symptom reduction as reflected above in traditional PTSD scores (CAPS and PCL-5) and the lower therapy attrition rates, there are limitations and challenges. The ability to transfer these immersive therapies into mainstream PTSD treatment remains challenged by small sample sizes, procedural heterogeneity, and a lack of long-term data. However, the increasing deployment of immersive capabilities by large government departments such as the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and their anticipated growth to 2032, as shown above, demonstrate confidence and willingness to invest in the capability. Demonstrating in a rigorous, scientific manner why these immersive therapies work will be an important piece of work if PTSD therapies are to ensure they are not applying false generalisations and wasting resources on unproven outcomes.

The shift away from a disease model to one of holistic wellness is positive. By prioritising a focus on post-traumatic growth and helping people living with PTSD regain that vital sense of optimism, immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR can help PTSD patients actively re-write their trauma networks, transitioning from passive victims to active participants in their recovery journey. This brings human, financial, and productivity benefits for the individual, their families, and the broader community.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
{{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}}

[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
{{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}}

'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs &amp; Collaborations&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

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      <text bytes="48370" sha1="bgmtfpzsk33uj3gpfi35op1ln6jq8yv" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies'''

Andriy, a Ukranian soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment.

Learn about immersive therapy and Andriy’s (a fictional name used for this scenario) experience in the chapter below.{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]]  (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations.
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'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence say about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Predict the outcome

Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. 
Andriy expects:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.
* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===

PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption contributes to symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 2 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).  

[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]

To manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). 

While this avoidance approach may produce short-term relief from acute anxiety, it prevents the cognitive and emotional exposure to the trauma event, something that psychologists believe is important to help integrate the trauma. (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Instead of helping to resolve the distress, the act of avoidance helps to freeze the traumatic memory network, in turn ensuring that intrusive trauma reminders such as flashbacks, continue to trigger extreme levels of distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). López-Ojeda and Hurley (2022) This suggests that effective adaptive emotional processing is essential because, without it, the underlying fear conditions remain, trapping the individual in a state of chronic stress.

Empirical evidence supports this relationship. In a 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142), regression analysis demonstrated that emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in perceived PTSD symptoms, including the non-acceptance of emotional responses, the lack of access to treatment strategies, and impulse control difficulties. When combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these emotional factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13,92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).
=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Facilitating emotional processing in clinical settings can be challenging. Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) or [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT) require PTSD patients to actively engage with highly traumatic and distressing memories in order to generate and promote fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, because trauma memories are often distressing, many patients find themselves unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation required for this therapeutic change. (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This difficulty then contributes to treatment resistance, non-response and attrition. Research reports that 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This avoidance will be context dependent, however contemporary literature involving military veterans with PTSD suggests that it is compounded by some age dependent factors and comorbid behaviours; younger patients facing heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, which in turn leads to a further decline in emotional regulation ability (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] further complicates clinical engagement. Historically, psychological theory views baseline emotional 

[[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]

regulation difficulties as a major barrier to effective trauma processing, requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, van Toorenburg et al. (2020) suggest that recent research indicates that emotion regulation is not a fixed limitation, but has a degree of dynamic capacity. Instead, standard trauma-focused treatments may directly improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing. This suggests that the primary difficulty in PTSD treatment is not patients lacking emotional regulatory skills. Instead, it is more about the therapy mechanism of helping the patient safely approach and process the traumatic memory itself (van Toorenburg et al., 2020).

Cultural context is also an important factor in why treatment can be difficult. Doctoral work is underway at the [[University of Canberra]], exploring and addressing cultural localisation and integrating cognitive rehabilitation into immersive therapy. As depicted in Figure 3, this includes future clinical trials based on the US-centric ''Bravemind''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; VRET platform, using Australian military veterans with different operational backgrounds and rules of engagement than their United States counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This helps advance a new frontier in precision mental health by integrating exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation. This supports motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025).

=== Why avoidance matters ===
Avoidance is a central psychological mechanism that maintains PTSD. Trauma reminders can trigger powerful emotional activations, leading individuals to avoid thoughts, feelings, places or situations associated with the traumatic event (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). While this immediate avoidance behaviour can create short-term relief, it reinforces an avoidance cycle and corresponding avoidance behaviour (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

The treatment effect of this behaviour is that the avoidance cycle blocks opportunities for corrective learning. As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

Immersive therapies theory seeks to disrupt the self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing a controlled, supportive therapy and digital environment. By helping patients safely confront trauma cues, the immersive approach is theorised to encourage active coping behaviour and facilitate precise emotional confrontation and memory reconsolidation (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).   
== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===
Immersive therapy methodologies can now leverage the latest advances in technology, including artificial intelligence and processing power reflected in [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms. These platforms encompass [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), which allow customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).
[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]

This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted above in Figure 4, now supports two primary clinical therapy applications: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) and Multi-Modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).

VRET allows therapists to reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded and controlled environments. At the same time, 3MDR expands this framework by introducing side-by-side, active partnership, where a patient walks on a treadmill facing a panoramic virtual display rather than sitting with a clinician. This sensory activation creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===
From a clinical perspective, PTSD can be characterised by [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], where, amongst broader symptoms, individuals lose the capacity to modulate intense feelings of guilt, fear and shame(Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025). Westphal et al. (2017)This suggests the regulatory deficit forces individuals to adopt narrow, highly avoidant coping strategies, leaving what military veterans might describe as being trapped in persistent states of ‘''[[w:Combat_readiness|combat readiness]]’''. This state of chronic sensory and emotional arousal is maintained because traumatic memories remain isolated from the brain’s executive networks (Westphal et al., 2017).  Successful therapeutic emotional recovery requires activating the Traumatic Memory Network (TMN), engaging the brain’s [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). The immersive therapies outlined above achieve this TMN activation by delivering highly personalised cues, including patient-selected images and music. These cues help safely activate and retrieve trauma memory and initiate positive emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===
Behavioural and cognitive avoidance are the primary barriers to trauma recovery as they prevent corrective, safe information from being incorporated into the trauma network (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies attempt to bypass this self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing activating, side-by-side coaching partnerships with the clinician and patient (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).  Figure 5, below, contrasts the avoidance cycle with new processing outcomes. In 3MDR therapy, patients harnessed to a treadmill and walking towards a visual scene functions as a literal Fear Antagonistic Action (FAA) (de Haart et al., 2026). By physically walking towards the trauma stimulus rather than pulling away, patients engage in active approach behaviour. This helps dilute the natural tendency to avoid distress and serves to convert a state of passive helplessness into one of active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 5'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on traditional exposure therapy theory by facilitating inhibitory learning, a process in which the patient develops a new, safe association that actively suppresses the original conditioned fear response (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). To optimise fear extinction, clinical sessions use extended reality environments to maximise the prediction errors generated for the patient by disconfirming the patient’s catastrophic expectations (de Haart et al., 2026).

As evidence that it is the psychological mechanism involved that is driving fear extinction, discuss traditional exercise-augmentation literature, which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, low-intensity walking in 3MDR therapy (&lt; 4 km/h) is ineffective for generating BDNF secretion. This suggests that different mechanisms of action may be involved, with benefits primarily driven by the behavioural approach of Fear Augmenting Actions and the cognitive restructuring that occurs.

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===
Traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[wikipedia:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR will use dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 6). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As memory processing occurs, some emerging research suggests that linguistic shifts also become observable (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). Through [[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use. This was also accompanied by a steady increase in sentence word counts, demonstrating a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? ==
Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===
The virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). By delivering the tailored trauma stimulus, VRET can bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that would typically prevent a PTSD patient from successfully engaging in traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026).

Meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy of VRET points to substantial within-group PTSD symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD]] Scale (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). In practical terms, these scales typically view score changes of +/-10-20 points as clinically significant and could mean the difference between a patient suffering severe functional impairment and one with mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  While comparative effects against active PTSD treatments remain modest, VRET appears to present a highly engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026)

=== Presence and emotional activation ===
VR's distinguishing therapeutic power is its ability to use a virtual environment to generate a presence effect, or the psychological illusion of being there. Multisensory technology can then amplify this state, as shown in Figure 3, by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This multisensory immersion triggers controlled emotional activation, which is theorised to allow patients to achieve psychological habituation by virtually transferring the avoided traumatic emotions into a safe space (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Accordingly, improved emotion regulation can then act as a precursor to optimism. This, according to the positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]], creates a positive dynamic spiral of emotional states that expands an individual’s cognitive flexibility and actively reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).

=== 3MDR ===
Multi-modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) takes elements of the established VR construct and introduces a highly activating context. It is designed to transform treatment from a sedentary, face-to-face environment into a side-by-side, mobile partnership in which the PTSD patient and the clinical therapist face the virtual display and events together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). The intervention therapy is based around a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Recent research suggesting the approach may have some breakthrough potential for treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR demonstrating non-inferiority with large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six months (''n''=134, ''d''=1.0) and high acceptability reflected in a dropout rate 7-20% which in military populations is low in comparison to drop out rates up to 48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b)

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===
Emotional activation is the psychological outcome of embodied cognition, where mind-body interactions with the environment can modify cognitive states. Treadmill walking towards a trauma stimulus serves as the fear-antagonistic action, which in turn converts passive avoidance into an active approach behaviour (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Behaviour change in recovery is also reflected in positive linguistic shifts, as discussed previously.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? ==
Immersive therapies show cognitive and empirical gains by systematically reducing symptom severity, enhancing emotional engagement, and disrupting [[w:Maladaptation|maladaptive]], self-reinforcing avoidance cycles (Lopes et al., 2025). By fostering a powerful sense of presence, these immersion technologies help facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation (Lopes et al., 2025). On a cognitive level, treadmill-assisted therapy helps creative divergent thinking and break free of negative and repetitive trauma narratives. At the same time, multisensory virtual environments (particularly audio, visual, and haptic) can produce notable and sustained clinical improvements (Lopes et al., 2025). Table 1, below, summarises the main effects and psychological mechanisms referenced in this wiki page. 

'''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional Trauma-Focused Exposure'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive and Motion Assisted Approaches'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanism'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Therapeutic Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''.
Face to face, seated, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.'''''
Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity to recall and describe event
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Cues can be highly tailored to individual scenario. Clinician is aware.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers by using sensory cues to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing''' '''and attention'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration, fear habituation and cognitive restructuring.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time approach using affective labelling and dual attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory Tax.'''''
Working memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement and Adherence'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
High dropout rates ranging from 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive and generated lower dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Controllable, immersive environment via presence and safety.
|}

=== What are the costs and limitations? ===

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) : What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
&lt;br&gt;
* PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).
* PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).
* In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).
* Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The ability to translate small immersion trials into mainstream PTSD treatment options remains limited by high degrees of methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, a lack of long-term data and generalisability issues (Felemban et al., 2026). In addition, practical disruptions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Extended reality structural obstacles such as workforce training and the costs of equipment acquisition and technology sustainment must also be considered. Basic VR systems had estimated annual costs of around US$3,500 per provider headset per year, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). For example, in the [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]], VR testing was limited to five localised medical centres in 2017 but has since scaled to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff. While early spending on these environments was targeted at PTSD treatments, current funding cycles include over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024).

These growing treatment interventions and trends have also been the subject of financial analysis, with market research suggesting the global market for PTSD virtual reality therapy was approximately US$1.59 billion in 2025 and is forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032 (Stratistics MRC, 2025). The main factors driving this increase are growing awareness of mental health issues (Driver), the absence of standard clinical protocols (Restraint), and regional differences (Threat). The exposure therapy segment is expected to be the largest growth segment, with the civilian trauma segment predicted to be the fastest-growing (Stratistics MRC, 2025).

Ultimately, these limitations, challenges and forecasts all point to a paradigm shift, one that is moving away from a narrow, disease model of symptom reduction, towards one of holistic wellness. One that prioritises post-traumatic growth, positive emotional values and regaining optimism as benchmarks of trauma recovery (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

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'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room.

In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' ?
2.	What does it '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 6.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill.

By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

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== Conclusion ==
PTSD can have devastating effects on individuals and their wider family and social networks. Trauma can be caused by a range of factors in both civilian and military contexts. PTSD disrupts the ability for effective emotional processing, trapping individuals in self-reinforcing cycles of avoidance. Immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR help break this cycle by shifting clinical therapy approaches from passive, sedentary activities to active, embodied behaviours. Immersive technologies are only therapy delivery tools; they are not the psychological mechanisms that drive emotional and physical change.

The core psychological mechanisms include inhibitory learning, which disconfirms threat appraisals and expectations and thereby maximises prediction error.  Working memory taxation, involving dual-attention tasks that compete for limited cognitive resources, serves as a mechanism to reduce the vividness of trauma memories. Memory reconsolidation mechanisms, driven by prediction error and memory taxation, then allow memories to be retrieved in a more labile, malleable state. These emotional mechanisms are also enabled by embodied cognition, which leverages physical movement on treadmills towards a threat to alter the internal threat assessments and generate divergent thinking.   

While the empirical evidence appears to show positive and substantial symptom reduction as reflected above in traditional PTSD scores (CAPS and PCL-5) and the lower therapy attrition rates, there are limitations and challenges. The ability to transfer these immersive therapies into mainstream PTSD treatment remains challenged by small sample sizes, procedural heterogeneity, and a lack of long-term data. However, the increasing deployment of immersive capabilities by large government departments such as the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and their anticipated growth to 2032, as shown above, demonstrate confidence and willingness to invest in the capability. Demonstrating in a rigorous, scientific manner why these immersive therapies work will be an important piece of work if PTSD therapies are to ensure they are not applying false generalisations and wasting resources on unproven outcomes.

The shift away from a disease model to one of holistic wellness is positive. By prioritising a focus on post-traumatic growth and helping people living with PTSD regain that vital sense of optimism, immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR can help PTSD patients actively re-write their trauma networks, transitioning from passive victims to active participants in their recovery journey. This brings human, financial, and productivity benefits for the individual, their families, and the broader community.

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[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
{{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}}

[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
{{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}}

'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs &amp; Collaborations&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]</text>
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      <text bytes="46737" sha1="0uweq3oldswlan73y956oyc17sj6qc2" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies'''

Andriy, a Ukranian soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment.

Learn about immersive therapy and Andriy’s (a fictional name used for this scenario) experience in the chapter below.{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]]  (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence say about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Predict the outcome

Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. 
Andriy expects:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.
* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===

PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).  

[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a self-reinforcing avoidance cycle.

At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brains [[w:Salience_network|salience]]  and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017).

A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT)  work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory.

Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;  (Figure 3) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025).

These PTSD treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.   

== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===
Immersive therapy methodologies can now leverage the latest advances in technology, including artificial intelligence and processing power reflected in [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]] (XR) platforms. These platforms encompass [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), which allow customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).
[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]

This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted above in Figure 4, now supports two primary clinical therapy applications: Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) and Multi-Modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).

VRET allows therapists to reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded and controlled environments. At the same time, 3MDR expands this framework by introducing side-by-side, active partnership, where a patient walks on a treadmill facing a panoramic virtual display rather than sitting with a clinician. This sensory activation creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===
From a clinical perspective, PTSD can be characterised by [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], where, amongst broader symptoms, individuals lose the capacity to modulate intense feelings of guilt, fear and shame(Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025). Westphal et al. (2017)This suggests the regulatory deficit forces individuals to adopt narrow, highly avoidant coping strategies, leaving what military veterans might describe as being trapped in persistent states of ‘''[[w:Combat_readiness|combat readiness]]’''. This state of chronic sensory and emotional arousal is maintained because traumatic memories remain isolated from the brain’s executive networks (Westphal et al., 2017).  Successful therapeutic emotional recovery requires activating the Traumatic Memory Network (TMN), engaging the brain’s [[w:Salience_network|salience]] and central executive networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). The immersive therapies outlined above achieve this TMN activation by delivering highly personalised cues, including patient-selected images and music. These cues help safely activate and retrieve trauma memory and initiate positive emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===
Behavioural and cognitive avoidance are the primary barriers to trauma recovery as they prevent corrective, safe information from being incorporated into the trauma network (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Immersive therapies attempt to bypass this self-reinforcing avoidance cycle by establishing activating, side-by-side coaching partnerships with the clinician and patient (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).  Figure 5, below, contrasts the avoidance cycle with new processing outcomes. In 3MDR therapy, patients harnessed to a treadmill and walking towards a visual scene functions as a literal Fear Antagonistic Action (FAA) (de Haart et al., 2026). By physically walking towards the trauma stimulus rather than pulling away, patients engage in active approach behaviour. This helps dilute the natural tendency to avoid distress and serves to convert a state of passive helplessness into one of active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 5'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===
Immersive therapy builds on traditional exposure therapy theory by facilitating inhibitory learning, a process in which the patient develops a new, safe association that actively suppresses the original conditioned fear response (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017). To optimise fear extinction, clinical sessions use extended reality environments to maximise the prediction errors generated for the patient by disconfirming the patient’s catastrophic expectations (de Haart et al., 2026).

As evidence that it is the psychological mechanism involved that is driving fear extinction, discuss traditional exercise-augmentation literature, which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, low-intensity walking in 3MDR therapy (&lt; 4 km/h) is ineffective for generating BDNF secretion. This suggests that different mechanisms of action may be involved, with benefits primarily driven by the behavioural approach of Fear Augmenting Actions and the cognitive restructuring that occurs.

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===
Traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[wikipedia:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR will use dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 6). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As memory processing occurs, some emerging research suggests that linguistic shifts also become observable (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a). Through [[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use. This was also accompanied by a steady increase in sentence word counts, demonstrating a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== How do immersive programs translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? ==
Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===
The virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). By delivering the tailored trauma stimulus, VRET can bypass imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that would typically prevent a PTSD patient from successfully engaging in traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026).

Meta-analysis of the clinical efficacy of VRET points to substantial within-group PTSD symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD]] Scale (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale] (Felemban et al., 2026). In practical terms, these scales typically view score changes of +/-10-20 points as clinically significant and could mean the difference between a patient suffering severe functional impairment and one with mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  While comparative effects against active PTSD treatments remain modest, VRET appears to present a highly engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026)

=== Presence and emotional activation ===
VR's distinguishing therapeutic power is its ability to use a virtual environment to generate a presence effect, or the psychological illusion of being there. Multisensory technology can then amplify this state, as shown in Figure 3, by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This multisensory immersion triggers controlled emotional activation, which is theorised to allow patients to achieve psychological habituation by virtually transferring the avoided traumatic emotions into a safe space (Kukharuk et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Accordingly, improved emotion regulation can then act as a precursor to optimism. This, according to the positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]], creates a positive dynamic spiral of emotional states that expands an individual’s cognitive flexibility and actively reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).

=== 3MDR ===
Multi-modal Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) takes elements of the established VR construct and introduces a highly activating context. It is designed to transform treatment from a sedentary, face-to-face environment into a side-by-side, mobile partnership in which the PTSD patient and the clinical therapist face the virtual display and events together (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). The intervention therapy is based around a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Recent research suggesting the approach may have some breakthrough potential for treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR demonstrating non-inferiority with large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six months (''n''=134, ''d''=1.0) and high acceptability reflected in a dropout rate 7-20% which in military populations is low in comparison to drop out rates up to 48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b)

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===
Emotional activation is the psychological outcome of embodied cognition, where mind-body interactions with the environment can modify cognitive states. Treadmill walking towards a trauma stimulus serves as the fear-antagonistic action, which in turn converts passive avoidance into an active approach behaviour (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Behaviour change in recovery is also reflected in positive linguistic shifts, as discussed previously.

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? ==
Immersive therapies show cognitive and empirical gains by systematically reducing symptom severity, enhancing emotional engagement, and disrupting [[w:Maladaptation|maladaptive]], self-reinforcing avoidance cycles (Lopes et al., 2025). By fostering a powerful sense of presence, these immersion technologies help facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation (Lopes et al., 2025). On a cognitive level, treadmill-assisted therapy helps creative divergent thinking and break free of negative and repetitive trauma narratives. At the same time, multisensory virtual environments (particularly audio, visual, and haptic) can produce notable and sustained clinical improvements (Lopes et al., 2025). Table 1, below, summarises the main effects and psychological mechanisms referenced in this wiki page. 

'''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional Trauma-Focused Exposure'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive and Motion Assisted Approaches'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanism'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Therapeutic Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''.
Face to face, seated, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.'''''
Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity to recall and describe event
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Cues can be highly tailored to individual scenario. Clinician is aware.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers by using sensory cues to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing''' '''and attention'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration, fear habituation and cognitive restructuring.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time approach using affective labelling and dual attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory Tax.'''''
Working memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement and Adherence'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
High dropout rates ranging from 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive and generated lower dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Controllable, immersive environment via presence and safety.
|}

=== What are the costs and limitations? ===

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) : What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
&lt;br&gt;
* PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).
* PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).
* In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).
* Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The ability to translate small immersion trials into mainstream PTSD treatment options remains limited by high degrees of methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, a lack of long-term data and generalisability issues (Felemban et al., 2026). In addition, practical disruptions such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Extended reality structural obstacles such as workforce training and the costs of equipment acquisition and technology sustainment must also be considered. Basic VR systems had estimated annual costs of around US$3,500 per provider headset per year, with advanced simulation environments costing up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). For example, in the [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]], VR testing was limited to five localised medical centres in 2017 but has since scaled to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff. While early spending on these environments was targeted at PTSD treatments, current funding cycles include over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024).

These growing treatment interventions and trends have also been the subject of financial analysis, with market research suggesting the global market for PTSD virtual reality therapy was approximately US$1.59 billion in 2025 and is forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032 (Stratistics MRC, 2025). The main factors driving this increase are growing awareness of mental health issues (Driver), the absence of standard clinical protocols (Restraint), and regional differences (Threat). The exposure therapy segment is expected to be the largest growth segment, with the civilian trauma segment predicted to be the fastest-growing (Stratistics MRC, 2025).

Ultimately, these limitations, challenges and forecasts all point to a paradigm shift, one that is moving away from a narrow, disease model of symptom reduction, towards one of holistic wellness. One that prioritises post-traumatic growth, positive emotional values and regaining optimism as benchmarks of trauma recovery (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room.

In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' ?
2.	What does it '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 6.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill.

By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
PTSD can have devastating effects on individuals and their wider family and social networks. Trauma can be caused by a range of factors in both civilian and military contexts. PTSD disrupts the ability for effective emotional processing, trapping individuals in self-reinforcing cycles of avoidance. Immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR help break this cycle by shifting clinical therapy approaches from passive, sedentary activities to active, embodied behaviours. Immersive technologies are only therapy delivery tools; they are not the psychological mechanisms that drive emotional and physical change.

The core psychological mechanisms include inhibitory learning, which disconfirms threat appraisals and expectations and thereby maximises prediction error.  Working memory taxation, involving dual-attention tasks that compete for limited cognitive resources, serves as a mechanism to reduce the vividness of trauma memories. Memory reconsolidation mechanisms, driven by prediction error and memory taxation, then allow memories to be retrieved in a more labile, malleable state. These emotional mechanisms are also enabled by embodied cognition, which leverages physical movement on treadmills towards a threat to alter the internal threat assessments and generate divergent thinking.   

While the empirical evidence appears to show positive and substantial symptom reduction as reflected above in traditional PTSD scores (CAPS and PCL-5) and the lower therapy attrition rates, there are limitations and challenges. The ability to transfer these immersive therapies into mainstream PTSD treatment remains challenged by small sample sizes, procedural heterogeneity, and a lack of long-term data. However, the increasing deployment of immersive capabilities by large government departments such as the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and their anticipated growth to 2032, as shown above, demonstrate confidence and willingness to invest in the capability. Demonstrating in a rigorous, scientific manner why these immersive therapies work will be an important piece of work if PTSD therapies are to ensure they are not applying false generalisations and wasting resources on unproven outcomes.

The shift away from a disease model to one of holistic wellness is positive. By prioritising a focus on post-traumatic growth and helping people living with PTSD regain that vital sense of optimism, immersive therapies such as VR and 3MDR can help PTSD patients actively re-write their trauma networks, transitioning from passive victims to active participants in their recovery journey. This brings human, financial, and productivity benefits for the individual, their families, and the broader community.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
{{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}}

[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
{{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}}

'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs &amp; Collaborations&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

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      <text bytes="38529" sha1="5weq9fyh0e8pn4slteidisg8idm6zee" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment:&lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: Immersive PTSD therapies'''

Andriy, a Ukranian soldier, harnessed to a treadmill, walks towards a screen displaying an image he spent months avoiding. His therapist beside him. This is multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), one of a new generation of immersive therapies being used to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 1.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment.

Learn about more about immersive therapy and Andriy’s* experience in the chapter below (*Andriy is a fictional name used for this scenario). {{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 2:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[w:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and carries a substantial personal and societal cost, estimated in the hundreds of billions of dollars annually worldwide (Figure 2), with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Further detail in costs and limitations below (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). 

PTSDs emotional impact is shaped by [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]], in which people struggle to manage intense feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017).This commonly triggers a cycle of [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and behavioural avoidance that offers short-term relief but prevents traumatic memory from being adaptively processed, leaving the person trapped in a cycle of avoidance and a state of chronic, hyper arousal (Efremov, 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersive interventions, including [[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|virtual reality exposure therapy]]  (VRET) and multi-modular motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR) aim to break this cognitive avoidance cycle by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This chapter explains the psychological theory behind these approaches, reviews the research evidence for their effects and considers current limitations.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How can immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* What does the research evidence show?
* What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies? 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why is emotional processing important in PTSD? ==
PTSD frequently develops after exposure to severe or life-threatening trauma and it is formally diagnosed according to [[w:DSM-5|DSM-5]] criteria. Sufferers experience chronic hyper-vigilance, mental hyper arousal and a disruption to executive and emotional processing systems (Kukharuk et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
;Predict the outcome

A soldier with PTSD encounters a trauma-related image and expects:

'''TRAUMA CUE → DANGER → DISTRESS → AVOID'''

However, during immersive treatment, the expected danger does not occur. What is the most likely consequence?&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Fear increases permanently.

- Memory cannot change.

+ Prediction error creates an opportunity for new learning.

- Emotional processing stops. 

}

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right; color:red; font-weight:bold;&quot;&gt;
Click &quot;show&quot; below  to understand more⤵ &lt;/div&gt;
{{Hidden begin|title=Please pause and predict the answer before opening this section}}The correct answer is '''C'''.
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;
The mismatch between expected danger and actual safety creates a
'''prediction error'''. This may contribute to fear extinction,
emotion regulation, and memory reconsolidation.'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?
&lt;/div&gt;

 
{{Hidden end}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left; color:black; font-weight:regular;&quot;&gt;''Keep your thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.
* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario.
&lt;/div&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===

PTSD is characterised by difficulty in adaptively processing traumatic events. This disruption produces symptoms such as intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares, heightened threat perception, hyper-vigilance and persistent negative emotional states as depicted in Figure 3 (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).  

[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 3. PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.''']]Emotional processing theory suggests that recovering from trauma requires the fear structure held in the memory to be activated and updated with corrective information. In PTSD this process is blocked and to manage this intense physiological and emotional stress, many individuals will adopt cognitive and behavioural avoidance as a primary defence mechanism (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Avoidance offers short-term relief but prevents the traumatic memory from being safely reactivated, so it can update with new, safe information. Trauma reminders such as flashbacks continue to trigger extreme distress and fear (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). This traps the individual in a maladaptive, self-reinforcing avoidance cycle (Figure 4 below).

At a neural level, Wesphal et al. (2017) link this to [[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|transdiagnostic]] [[w:Emotional_dysregulation|emotion dysregulation]], in which the traumatic memory network (TMN) remains isolated from the brains [[w:Salience_network|salience]]  and central executive networks. Effective treatment requires safely reactivating this network so the memory can be integrated rather than avoided (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Westphal et al., 2017).

A 2025 study of Danish military veterans (''n''=142) found emotional regulation difficulties explained an additional 28% of the variance in PTSD symptoms, which when combined with [[w:Comorbidity|comorbid]] symptoms, these factors accounted for 52% of the variance in PTSD severity (''F''(13, 92) = 9.58, ''p'' &lt;0.001). Impulse control difficulties (ß = 0.32'', p'' = 0.005) and non-acceptance of emotional responses (ß = 0.20'', p'' = 0.05) were among the strongest predictors (Elklit &amp; Dahl, 2025).[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 4'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025b).|center]]

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===
Traditional trauma-focused psychotherapies such as [[w:Prolonged_exposure_therapy|prolonged exposure]] (PE) and [[w:Cognitive_processing_therapy|cognitive processing therapy]] (CPT)  work by asking patients to actively engage with distressing memories in to generate fear extinction (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). However, this is precisely what avoidance prevents, with many patients unable to tolerate the emotional exposure and memory activation these therapies require (Lopes et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

As the individual cannot confront the trauma trigger in a safe environment, the brain cannot experience a prediction error and learn that a threat is no longer present. Consequently, the threat perception and threat response remain persistent within the PTSD patient, perpetuating the PTSD symptoms indefinitely. (de Haart et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022).

This difficulty is reflected in treatment outcomes where an estimated 39.2% of patients fail to respond to standard trauma-focused therapy, while dropout rates range between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Non-response is not uniform, among military veterans younger patients tend to show heightened symptom severity when the trauma is central to their personal identity, while others turn to poor diet or coping orientated substance abuse to suppress negative emotions, further eroding emotional regulation (Efremov, 2025; Niles et al., 2023).

[[w:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional dysregulation]] was historically viewed as a fixed barrier requiring a lengthy stabilisation phase before treatment could begin (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). More recent evidence however suggests otherwise, as emotional regulation has dynamic capacity and standard trauma-focused treatments can improve emotion regulation as a natural consequence of successful memory processing (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). This reframes the clinical challenge from being fixed barrier, to one of actively helping an individual safely approach and process the traumatic memory. [[File:UC PhD VR study.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' PhD work by R. Selvakumaran at the University of Canberra explores cultural and linguistic factors using the US ''Bravemind'' system and Australian veterans and first responders.]]Cultural context adds another layer of difficulty. Doctoral research at the the [[University of Canberra]] is examining how immersive therapy protocols developed in the United States such as the US-centric ''Bravemind''&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://medvr.ict.usc.edu/projects/bravemind.html|title=Bravemind {{!}} MedVR|website=medvr.ict.usc.edu|access-date=2026-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;  (Figure 5) need to be culturally adapted for Australian military veterans and first responders, whose operational backgrounds and rules of engagement differ from their US counterparts (Selvakumaran, 2025). This work integrates exposure therapy with gamified, posture-adaptive cognitive rehabilitation to support motor acuity and improved physical and emotional regulation (Selvakumaran, 2025). These PTSD treatment gaps carry a substantial economic and personal cost, which is part of the motivation for developing more effective alternatives such as immersive therapies.   

== How can immersive therapies influence emotional processes? ==
Developments in immersive PTSD treatments represent a notable shift from traditional approaches to psychological trauma care. Rather than relying on sedentary, largely passive therapeutic environments, these interventions shift clinical practice toward active, embodied, highly interactive, and engaging contexts (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

To understand how these emerging interventions alter emotional responses and behaviours, it is necessary to examine three psychological mechanisms and their interaction: multisensory presence, embodied cognition, and divergent thinking (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Immersion therapy goes beyond the simple visual replication of a trauma memory; instead, it begins to capture the participant’s visceral and cognitive focus by limiting distractions and developing a state of physical and mental engagement (Macey et al., 2026). Embodied cognition is the concept of how physical states of the body can directly modify states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). In active immersive therapies such as 3MDR, physically walking toward a virtual trauma reminder can alter the patient’s appraisal of safety, promoting associative memory access and facilitating open-ended divergent thinking patterns that disrupt previously learned rigid, repetitive trauma loops (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

=== What is immersive therapy? ===
[[File:XR and Human Senses.png|right|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' The Extended Reality environment and its interaction with the human brain. Designed to give readers a simple understanding of emerging technologies used in immersive PTSD environments.]]Immersive therapies&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; use [[w:Extended_reality|extended reality]](XR) platforms, encompassing [[virtual reality]] (VR), [[Augmented Reality|augmented reality]] (AR), and [[w:Mixed_reality_game|mixed reality]] (MR), to create customisable, controlled, and standardised therapeutic environments (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). This XR digital ecosystem, as depicted in Figure 6.
Two clinical therapy applications are the focus of this chapter: virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) where therapists reconstruct traumatic scenarios in safe, graded environments; and multi-modal motion assisted memory desensitisation and reconsolidation (3MDR), which extends this by having the patient move on a treadmill towards a panoramic display, side by side with their therapist, rather than a stationary, face to face session (de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).

=== '''Presence and embodied cognition''' ===
Immersive therapy’s distinguishing feature is its ability to generate presence, or the psychological illusion of being ‘there’. This illusion is amplified by integrating synchronised audio, visual, olfactory, haptic, and movement stimuli (Lopes et al., 2025; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). The presence effect then increases engagement with the trauma memory and supports emotional processing (van Gelderen et al., 2018).

In active therapies such as 3MDR, presence combines with cognition. The working principle is that physical states of the body can directly shape states of the mind (van Gelderen et al., 2018). Physically walking towards a virtual trauma reminder functions as a fear antagonistic action (FAA) and rather than retreating in avoidance, the patient approaches, converting passive helplessness into active, empowered participation (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). This movement towards the active approach generates immediate neurocognitive stress responses that include bypassing severe avoidance behaviours and boosting divergent thinking approaches, which can disrupt rigid and repetitive trauma narratives (Boska et al., 2025; Osman et al., 2016; van Gelderen et al., 2018).

Notably, this benefit does not seem to be driven by exercise physiology which suggests moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity is required to consolidate extinction learning by stimulating [[w:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain-derived neurotrophic factor]] (BDNF); however, the walking pace in 3MDR therapy (&lt; 4 km/h) is too low to generate meaningful BDNF secretion. This suggests the mechanisms of benefit is primarily psychological and behavioural. It is the approach action itself and the cognitive restructuring it enables, rather than physiological causes (de Haart et al., 2026).

=== '''Prediction error and inhibitory learning''' ===
Immersive therapy builds on the inhibitory learning model of exposure therapy, in which a new, safe association actively competes with and suppresses the original conditioned fear response. Walking towards a trauma cue and encountering safety instead of the expected catastrophe creates a profound prediction error, a mismatch between the anticipated, catastrophic, life-threatening event and the actual reality of a safe clinical environment. This destabilises the traumatic memory, allowing successful memory reconsolidation work to occur (Felemban et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

=== '''Memory reconsolidation''' ===
According to [[w:Memory_consolidation|memory reconsolidation]] theory, traumatic memories retrieved in a safe, highly immersive context can enter a [[w:Lability|labile]] '','' or [[w:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory, during which introducing safe, supportive contextual information allows the memory to be reconsolidated in a non-threatening form (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

To prevent the patient from becoming overwhelmed during retrieval, 3MDR uses dual-attention tasks such as tracking an oscillating ball (see example in Figure 1). This dual task intentionally taxes the patient’s limited working memory resources and can help reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the memory (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Emerging linguistic research suggests that this processing is also reflected in the patient’s language. Through [[w:Affect_labeling|affective labelling]] visceral feelings such as GUILT are projected into text, patients display substantive cognitive reorganisation. Across successive 3MDR sessions, objective [[w:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] indicated a shift from past-tense trauma narratives to present-tense verb use, all this consistent with a renewed ability to articulate emotional states and integrate traumatic moments into present-moment awareness (Vermetten, Barcaro, et al., 2025a).

== '''What does the research evidence show?''' ==
Immersive therapies help translate or facilitate psychological change by serving as a medium for Emotional Processing Theory and inhibitory learning (López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). Within these highly controlled clinical environments, patients can be systematically exposed to trauma cues that provide specific discomfort to the individual undergoing treatment. This exposure helps disconfirm existing threat expectations and overcome cognitive and behavioural barriers such as active resistance or amnesia, which have been associated with barriers in traditional therapies (Macey et al., 2026; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

Addressing these treatment barriers is important for any PTSD population, but in the literature concerning military populations, it appears particularly critical, as they suffer high psychotherapy failure rates. van Gelderen et al. (2018) cite two-thirds of veterans retaining a PTSD diagnosis after standard treatments and clinical dropout rates of up to 78%. Immersive therapies such as the virtual reality ones discussed above can tailor increasingly specific, patient-selected trauma cues to enhance memory accessibility by enabling precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

=== '''Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy''' ===
[[w:Virtual_reality_therapy|VRET]] reconstructs traumatic events within a safe, structured context (Felemban et al., 2026; López-Ojeda &amp; Hurley, 2022). Bypassing imagination challenges such as emotional numbing or amnesia that can prevent a PTSD patient engaging with traditional image exposure therapy (Macey et al., 2026). A meta-analysis of the VRET for PTSD found substantial within-group symptom reductions, averaging a 33.73-point decrease in the 0-80 point [[w:Clinician_Administered_PTSD_Scale|Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale]] (CAPS) and a 20.96-point decrease in the 0-80 point [https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-sr/ptsd-checklist.asp PTSD Checklist PCL-5) scale]  (Felemban et al., 2026). Because changes of 10-20 points on these scales are usually considered clinically significant, this could mean the difference between severe functional impairment and mild or subclinical symptoms (Boska et al., 2025; de Haart et al., 2026; Felemban et al., 2026).  Comparative effects against other active PTSD treatments remain modest, but VRET appears to be a more engaging alternative to conventional treatment options (Felemban et al., 2026)

=== '''3MDR''' ===
3MDR takes the same multisensory presence effect used in VRET and adds an activating context. Rather than a sedentary, face-to-face session, the patient and the therapist face the virtual display together, side by side (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b). It follows a three-phase protocol: pre-platform preparation, platform treadmill exposure, and post-platform re-consolidation (Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

In a trial involving treatment-resistant PTSD; 3MDR showed large effect sizes from pre-treatment to six month follow up (''n'' = 134, ''d'' = 1.0) and high acceptability, with dropout rates of 7-20%, substantially lower than the 16-48% typical of standard trauma-focused therapy in military populations (de Haart et al., 2026; Lewis et al., 2020; van Gelderen et al., 2018; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b).

Improvements are not limited to PTSD symptoms. A trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD, including childhood sexual trauma, found intensive trauma-focused treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities regardless of PTSD outcome, even among patients with severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). Some researchers link this broader improvement to positive psychology [[w:Broaden-and-build|Broaden-and-Build Theory]]. The theory being that as patients regain a sense of safety and control, this may support a positive of emotional flexibility that reinforces the recovery process (Fredrickson, 2001; Niles et al., 2023; Westphal et al., 2017).

Table 1 below summarises the main differences and psychological mechanisms discussed above.
{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
'''Table 1:''' Treatment Effects and Psychological Mechanisms
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Clinical Dimension'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Traditional Exposure'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Immersive Approach'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Psychological Mechanisms'''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Therapeutic Context'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sedentary'''''.
Face to face, seated, verbally describes trauma.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Activating.'''''
Dynamic, multi-sensory environment.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Fear Antagonistic Action.'''''
'''''Approach behaviours.'''''

'''''Prediction Errors.'''''
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Trauma cue delivery'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Imaginary Retrieval'''''
Patient capacity to recall and describe event
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Multisensory Immersion'''''
Cues can be highly tailored to individual scenario. Clinician is aware.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''External Scaffolding.'''''
Bypasses internal barriers by using sensory cues to activate memory networks.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Processing''' '''and attention'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Convergent processing.'''''
Repeated narration, fear habituation and cognitive restructuring.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Active Narrative Processing.'''''
Interactive, real-time approach using affective labelling and dual attention tasks.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Working Memory Tax.'''''
Working memory taxation reduces vividness and emotional intensity.
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Engagement and Adherence'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Attrition.'''''
High dropout rates ranging from 16-48%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Acceptability.'''''
Attractive and generated lower dropout rates 7-20%.
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''''Sustained Motivation.'''''
Controllable, immersive environment via presence and safety.
|}

=== Applied Example: 3MDR treatment in Ukraine - 2025 ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War; Ukraine War: an applied 3MDR example'''

Andriy* used to be a baker in Kyiv. He is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces struggling with hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible; his mind stays in a constant state of combat readiness, even in a quiet room.

In the pre-platform phase of 3MDR, Andriy worked with his therapist to identify a ‘hotspot’ memory, represented by a photograph. On the treadmill, harnessed and walking beside his therapist, he faces a panoramic screen as personalised warm-up music plays, selected to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025b). As his hotspot image fills the screen, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025b):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' ?
2.	What does it '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is displayed as an affective label and a dual-attention task begins. He tracks an oscillating, numbered ball while he stays with the emotion, taxing his working memory and reducing the intensity of the recalled trauma.
[[File:Andriy 3MDR enhanced.gif|center|600x600px]]

'''Figure 7.''' Andriy, alongside his therapist, moves through his 3MDR treatment, integrating multi-sensory input and motion while harnessed to a treadmill.

By the end of the session, Andriy has physically walked towards what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety, turning a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name given to one of 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== '''What are the costs and limitations of immersive therapies?''' ==
PTSD carries a substantial economic burden. It was associated with an estimated US$232 billion in excess costs in the United States in 2018 and over $£40 billion, in the United Kingdom, 92.4% of which was indirect rather than direct clinical cost (Davis et al., 2022; Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025). In Australia, the average annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was estimated at $112,172 in 2025 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025). In addition, individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidities tripling this effect (Bothe et al., 2020). These figures span several countries and years and should be best read as an indication of scale rather than as directly comparable totals.

Immersive therapy’s ability to move from small trials into mainstream PTSD treatment remains limited by methodological [[w:Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity|heterogeneity]], small sample sizes, and a lack of long-term data (Felemban et al., 2026). Practical issues such as [[w:Virtual_reality_sickness|cyber sickness]] or motion sickness can also disrupt participation (Kukharuk et al., 2025).

Structural barriers include workforce training and equipment costs. Basic VR systems cost an estimated US$3,500 per provider headset annually, and advanced simulation environments can cost up to US$200,000 (Garrett et al., 2018). Despite this, adoption of immersive therapy is scaling. The [[w:United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs|United States Veterans Affairs]] have expanded VR use from five medical centres in 2017 to over 154 centres and 2,300 trained staff, with applications now including over 40 documented clinical interventions such as chronic pain and suicide intervention (Bailey et al., 2024).

Market analysts estimate the global PTSD-focused VR therapy market was worth US$1.59 billion in 2025, forecast to reach US$5.94 billion by 2032, driven largely by growing mental health awareness and the absence of standard clinical protocols (Stratistics MRC, 2025).

These limitations do not undermine the case for immersive therapy, but they show its evidence base and infrastructure are still maturing. Demonstrating rigorously why these therapies work, rather than assuming their novelty accounts for their effects is essential to avoid misallocating resources to unproven interventions and supports a paradigm shift, from a narrow, disease model towards one that values post-traumatic growth and renewed optimism (Trejo et al., 2015; Vermetten, Burback, et al., 2025b; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025).

== '''Conclusion''' ==
PTSD traps people in a self-reinforcing cycle of avoidance that blocks the adaptive processing trauma memories need to resolve (see: ''Understanding PTSD and emotions''). Standard trauma-focused therapies require patients to confront exactly what this cycle causes them to avoid, which contributes to high, non-response and dropout rates (see ''Why treatment can be difficult'').

Immersive therapies such as VRET and 3MDR address this by using presence, embodied cognition, prediction error and memory reconsolidation to help patients safely approach trauma cues rather than avoid them (see: ''What does the research evidence show''). The technology itself is only a delivery mechanism, it is the psychological processes that drive change.

The evidence to date shows meaningful reductions in PTSD symptoms and comparatively low drop-out rates, alongside broader gains in emotional regulation. However, small samples, methodological variation, and a lack of long-term data mean the evidence base is still developing, and cost and infrastructure barriers remain significant (see ''costs and limitations'').{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] ''' Take-home message:''' 
Immersive therapies do not heal PTSD trauma through technological novelty or digital feedback. Instead, they create a safe, dynamic space that lets individuals confront trauma and reprocess memories into something they can live with. In doing so, people’s lives may once again shift toward value, optimism, and wellness.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
{{ic|Add bullet points and rename links; add Wikipedia links}}

* [[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Book Chapter)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bailey, A. L., Kirsh, S., Rawlins, C., Persky, S., &amp; Clancy, C. (2024). Early scaling of immersive technology within the Veterans Health Administration. NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1056/cat.23.0356

Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within PTSD clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military Psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for PTSD with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Elklit, A., &amp; Dahl, N. H. (2025). Emotion regulation difficulties, aggression, and PTSD symptoms in Danish treatment-seeking veterans. Scandinavian Journal of Military Studies, 8(1), 308-326. https://doi.org/10.31374/sjms.264

Felemban, R. G., Alzahrani, R. R., Alrefaei, N. F., Alharbi, N. M., Alghamdi, A. S., &amp; Alqadi, S. (2026). Efficacy of virtual reality-based exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 17, 1857109. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1857109

Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Gromala, D., Tao, G., Cordingley, E., &amp; Sun, C. (2018). Virtual reality clinical research: Promises and challenges. JMIR Serious Games, 6(4), e10839. https://doi.org/10.2196/10839

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive VR therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in Ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Andrew, M., Starling, E., &amp; Bisson, J. I. (2020). Psychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder in adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1729633. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1729633

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., de Jesus, B. Jr., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX) (pp.1-5). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/QoMEX65720.2025.11219945

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for PTSD. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Macey, A.-L., Macey, J., &amp; Hamari, J. (2026). Emotion regulation in immersive virtual reality environments: A scoping review. Interacting with Computers, 29, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwag029

Niles, B., Lang, A., &amp; Olff, M. (2023). Complementary and integrative interventions for PTSD. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2247888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2023.2247888

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military Psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Selvakumaran, R. V. (2025). Developing virtual reality (VR) simulations with embedded user analytics for cognitive rehabilitation in PTSD veterans. In Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Multimodal Interaction (pp. 740-744). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3716553.3750826

Stratistics MRC. (2025). Virtual reality therapy for PTSD market forecasts to 2032: Global analysis by component (hardware, software and service), therapy type, application, end user and by geography. https://www.strategymrc.com/report/virtual-reality-therapy-for-ptsd-market

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military Psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, 176. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe PTSD? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Barcaro, S., Espejo, E., Bellini, P., Roy, M. J., &amp; Bremault-Phillips, S. (2025a). Linguistic analysis of patients’ labels during 3MDR psychotherapy. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S29. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241024

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025b). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl. 1), S122. https://doi.org/10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
{{ic|Add bullet points, hyperlink name of link, including source in parentheses}}

'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' VA Immersive Pilot Programs &amp; Collaborations&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.innovation.va.gov/hil/views/immersive/immersive-programs.html

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

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      <text bytes="15096" sha1="pfji6qhiinmccwgnelbgew4c1ebi9tx" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination:&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]]

'''Scenario'''

Brian has been trying for several days to start preparing an important presentation for an upcoming meeting. He is convinced that he must deliver a flawless presentation - think everything through and execute everything perfectly. He’s long had a clear picture in his mind of what the presentation should be like, but some kind of inner resistance keeps making him put off getting started. He glances through the materials, then switches to other tasks, as if waiting for the moment when he’ll finally feel completely ready. But that moment never comes.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

In a world where success and high achievement are highly valued, it is paradoxical that individuals who attach great importance to these goals may nonetheless refrain from action or engage in task avoidance. The interplay of these motives can result in two psychological constructs: [[wikipedia:Perfectionism_(psychology)|perfectionism]] and [[wikipedia:Procrastination|procrastination]]. Although they do not necessarily co-occur, empirical research indicates that some links exist between them.Understanding which possible mechanisms underlie the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination may help identify ways to overcome procrastination and achieve intended goals.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* What is the nature{{vague}} of perfectionism and procrastination?
* What is the relationship between perfectionism and procrastination?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Perfectionism and Procrastination ==
'''Perfectionism and procrastination''' are complex psychological constructs that may be closely related but differ in their nature and manifestations. Perfectionism primarily refers to personality traits and attitudes, whereas procrastination manifests itself primarily as a pattern of behaviour (Akpur &amp; Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025)

'''Perfectionism''': definition and key chararcteristics (Stoeber et al., 2018)

'''Perfectionism''' is the pursuit of perfection or flawlessness,the setting of high standards, and a critical attitude toward one's own mistakes (imperfections) (Sirois, 2017). According to a multidimensional model main demensions: perfectionistics strivings (setting high standards, striving for excellence;It is often considered an adaptive trait, as it can help achieve goals ) and perfectionictics concerns (fear of making a mistake, fear of criticism, excessive self-criticism, inability to take joy in success;is classified as maladaptive because it leads to negative consequences and is associated with failure of self-regulation (Gäde et al., 2017, Sirois, 2017)

'''Procrastination''': defenition and key characteristics (Sirois, 2017, Steel, 2007)

'''Procrastination''' is a ''behaviour'' in which a person voluntarily postpones important planned tasks, knowing that the negative consequences of such an action are inevitable; '''criteria''':

* '''Consciousness and''' '''voluntariness''':the delay is not due to objective external circumstances but is a     conscious choice made by the individual.
* '''Irrationality''':a person, clearly aware of the negative consequences, still continues to avoid performing the activity.
* '''Failure of self‑regulation''':Failure to the delay in activity is related to the individual’s inability to sufficiently control their behavior and emotions at the present moment (Sirois, 2017).

'''Domains of procrastination''': academic,work,everyday life,health,interpersonal (Kurtovic at al., 2019)&lt;gallery&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;

'''Table 1.'''

Types of Procrastination and Their Characteristics{{fact}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!'''Type'''
!'''Description'''
|-
|Academic procrastination
|Delaying academic assignments, exam preparation, and writing academic papers.
|-
|Workplace procrastination
|Postponing important work tasks, meetings, reports, and phone calls.
|-
|Health procrastination
|Postponing medical appointments, health check-ups, treatment, or health-promoting behaviours
|-
|Decision procrastination 
|Postponing or avoiding important decisions.
|}

{{Robelbox|left|alt=|theme=6|title=Learning Checkpoint |icon=Emblem-question-yellow.svg|iconwidth=48px}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Imagine this situation: you have a deadline for a report, but your boss has asked you to take on some of the work of a colleague who is sick. Do you think it’s considered procrastination if you put off your report to deal your boss’s request? }
-Yes
+No

&lt;/quiz&gt; 
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== How perfectionism relates to procrastination ==
'''Perfectionistic concerns''': their contribution to procrastination - is an attempt to avoid the negative feelings associated with a potentially less than ideal outcomes; an individual’s choice to delay in order to avoid confronting negative thoughts and feelings

'''Underlying mechanisms:''' high standards and the inability to meet them lead to a breakdown in self-regulation, which in turn leads to avoidance behavior (Sirois, 2017)'''.'''

'''Mediating factors''' ( fear of failure as a mediator (Yosopov et al., 2024), perceived discrepancy between standards and performance (Kurtovic at al., 2019), concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation)

== A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination ==
Relevant motiventional theories (Stoeber et al., 2018)

'''Self-Determination Theory'''

According to Self-Determination Theory, motivation depends on the fulfillment of basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. A person successfully achieves only those goals that they consider valuable and important. If a task is imposed from the outside and these needs are not met, a natural internal resistance arises

Within this framework, these basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can be met in various ways, which can be divided into internal and external. Internal approaches are linked to internal values and aspirations, while external approaches depend on external factors such as pressure, rewards, and punishments. In the case of perfectionism, when needs are formed more autonomously, adaptive perfectionism may develop, whereas with the external approach, maladaptive perfectionism may develop (Stoeber et al., 2018).

'''Motivational mechanism''': Lack of autonomy and competence creates internal resistance, triggering a desire to delay non-autonomous tasks which ultimately leads to procrastination (Grund &amp; Fries, 2018).

== Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination ==
'''Evidence for effectivness'''

Psychological interventions (2018 meta-analysis on the effectiveness of psychological interventions for combating procrastination. Psychotherapeutic methods generally have a small but statistically significant effect (g = 0.34).The most effective method is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CDT) (Rosental et al., 2018).

Self-help strategies (Self-monitoring/Time tracking; Goal-setting;Self-control training;Time management) produce inconsistent results; they address external symptoms but ignore the underlying psychological causes (perfectionism, emotional dysregulation ...) (Rosental et al., 2018

==Conclusion==

* Perfectionism and procrastination may be interrelated (Akpur &amp; Yurtseven, 2019, Husain et al., 2025) .
* Not all perfectionism leads to procrastination; procrastination is associated with perfectionist concerns.
* Perfectionist concerns may contribute to procrastination by leading individuals to avoid negative     thoughts and feelings, as well as the fear of failing to meet high standards .
* From a motivational perspective, extrinsic motivation may be linked to maladaptive perfectionism, which in certain cases leads to procrastination.
* According to self-determination theory, a lack of autonomy can reduce motivation and lead to procrastination (Stoeber et al., 2018) .
* One of the most effective psychotherapeutic method for overcoming procrastination is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)(Rosental et al., 2018) .

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Perfectionism|Perfectionism]] (Book chapter,2022)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Procrastination, moods, and emotion|Procrastination, moods, and emotion]] (Book chapter,2015)

==References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Akpur, U., &amp; Yurtseven, N. (2019). Structural Relationships between Academic Motivation, Procrastination and Perfectionism: A Modelling Study.         ''Cumhuriyet International Journal of Education''. https://doi.org/10.30703/cije.452633

Ferrari, J. R. (1992). Procrastinators and perfect behavior: An exploratory factor analysis of self-presentation, self-awareness, and self-handicapping components. ''Journal of Research in Personality'', ''26''(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(92)90060-h

Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., &amp; Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967

Gäde, J. C., Schermelleh-Engel, K., &amp; Klein, A. G. (2017). Disentangling the Common Variance of Perfectionistic Strivings and Perfectionistic Concerns:        A Bifactor Model of Perfectionism. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''(160). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00160

Grund, A., &amp; Fries, S. (2018). Understanding procrastination: A motivational approach. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''121'', 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.09.035

Husain, W., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Saif, Z., &amp; Jahrami, H. (2025). The development and validation of a one-off scale to measure procrastination and precrastination traits in young adults. BMC Psychology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-03072-6

Kurtovic, A., Vrdoljak, G., &amp; Idzanovic, A. (2019). Predicting procrastination: The role of academic achievement, self-efficacy and perfectionism. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 8(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2019.2993

Rozental, A., Bennett, S., Forsström, D., Ebert, D. D., Shafran, R., Andersson, G., &amp; Carlbring, P. (2018). Targeting Procrastination Using Psychological Treatments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01588

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-being. ''American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2000_RyanDeci_SDT.pdf

Sirois, F. M., Molnar, D. S., &amp; Hirsch, J. K. (2017). A Meta-analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism. ''European Journal of Personality'', ''31''(2), 137–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2098        

Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''133''(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65

Stoeber, J., Damian, L. E., &amp; Madigan, D. J. (2018). Perfectionism: A motivational perspective. In J. Stoeber (Ed.), The psychology of perfectionism: Theory, research, applications (pp. 19–43). Routledge/Taylor &amp; Francis Group.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311970309_Perfectionism_A_motivational_perspective

Xie, Y., Yang, J., &amp; Chen, F. (2018). Procrastination and multidimensional perfectionism: A meta-analysis of main, mediating, and moderating effects. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46(3), 395–408. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6680

Yosopov, L., Saklofske, D. H., Smith, M. M., Flett, G. L., &amp; Hewitt, P. L. (2024). Failure Sensitivity in Perfectionism and Procrastination: Fear of Failure and Overgeneralization of Failure as Mediators of Traits and Cognitions. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 42(6). https://doi.org/10.1177/07342829241249784
}}

This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
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** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
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==External links==
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

[https://www.oneyoufeed.net/procrastinator/ Being a Procrastinator with Tim Pychyl]

[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lFG1b1-EsW8 Our dangerous obsession with perfectionism is getting worse | Thomas Curran]

[https://www.apa.org/gradpsych/2010/01/procrastination Procrastination or 'intentional delay'?]

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

;Scenario

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being &quot;a swimmer&quot; is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?
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Self-concept is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements about oneself. Self-concept guides individuals in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences thinking, feelings and behaviour. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides choices, relationships and one's understanding of the world.  

For Ash in the case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how the understanding of oneself influences what one is motivated to do and examines how what one repeatedly does subsequently shapes self-concept. Understanding how and why individuals perceive themselves the way they do, and the impacts of self-concepts, can improve the understanding of human behaviour, help foster positive self-concept and facilitate the motivational properties of self-concept.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*How does self-concept shape motivation? 
*How do motivational processes influence self-concept?
*How can understanding self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. Although each theory approaches self-concept differently, several common properties emerge. Self-concept is a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (see Table 1; Marsh et al., 2019). These properties provide the foundation for understanding the motivational effects of self-concept. 

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popular “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability) and [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs.

'''Table 1'''

Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Property
!Significance for motivation
|-
|'''Multifaceted'''
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours
|-
|'''Hierarchical  '''
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours
|-
|'''Socially developed'''
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|'''Dynamic'''
|Self-concept changes with experience
|-
|'''Evaluative'''
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure
|-
|'''Descriptive  '''
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations
|}

== How does self-concept shape motivation? ==
A growing body of research suggests self-concept has important motivational properties. Motivation is an internal process which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour (Lens &amp; Vansteenkiste, 2020). Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional, ubiquitous and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation are both central guiding forces of behaviour and navigating the environment. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.  

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

Individuals pursue and evaluate goals in ways that align with their self-concept. This is driven by the human tendency to strive for alignment between self-concept and behaviour.  

'''[[wikipedia:Self-concept#:~:text=According%20to%20Rogers%2C%20everyone%20strives%20to%20reach%20an%20%22ideal%20self.%22|Rogers’ (1959) theory]]''' suggests the self is comprised of the real self and the ideal self. The alignment of these is known as congruence, a state where one has the capacity to pursue self-improving goals. When the ideal and real self do not align (incongruence), an individual experiences poorer mental health and acts defensively. This incongruence generates a psychological tension which acts as a motivating force, pushing the individual to either modify their behaviour to align with their self-concept, or modify their self-concept (Stephen, 2023).  

Supporting this concept, Howard and Dhillon (2022) found that using Rogers’ Q-sort, a measure of self-concept and congruency, can be an effective method of reflection to help individuals consciously choose goals that help achieve a congruent, ideal self. However, direct support for the foundational concept of congruence is sparse (Phillips et al., 1965). Rogers’ Q-sort was used to empirically test congruence. Phillips et al. (1965) found that incongruent participants, as indicated by Q-sort results, did not become more congruent over a 6-month measurement period, thus indicating a lack of movement motivated by incongruency. One explanation is that Rogers conceptualised self-concept as relatively stable. 

In response to the poor empirical support for congruence, contemporary research adopts a dynamic and context-dependent approach to self-concept. For example, Oyserman’s (2024) '''[[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|identity-based motivation theory]]''' suggests situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active and thus influence behaviour, providing a more flexible and realistic account of how self-concept influences behaviour in everyday situations. Like Rogers’ theory, it suggests individuals behave and interpret situations in ways that align with their identity. However, Oyserman (2015) expands Roger’s simplistic differentiation between real and ideal selves. The theory suggests a temporal flexibility of self-concept. A future self can be an active identity and thus individuals may act congruently to future selves. This may explain why future identities motivate present behaviour. Unlike Rogers' relatively stable model of the ideal self, identity-based motivation theory suggests future identities can become situationally salient and influence immediate behavioural decisions. 

The theory suggests that when behaviour is congruent with one’s identity, challenges in completing that behaviour are interpreted as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). Incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection through the process of difficulty interpretation (Oyserman, 2024). 

But why is importance motivating? Identity-relevant goals are motivating because they provide information about who one is and who one wants to become. This makes difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024).
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash is finding her long training sessions for the upcoming swimming competition difficult. However, when she's training, her future-self identity as an Olympic swimmer helps her interpret this as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, these difficulties may be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children and subsequent achievement increased when children thought about their future selves. Students were primed to think of their adult-self as near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. The effect of connecting to one’s future self lasted six months. These findings indicate that identifying with one’s future/ideal self can motivate goal attainment. Self-concept is malleable and moderates goal pursuit based on how one perceives themselves at a given time.  

'''''[Is this too abstracted/disconnected??]''''' Demonstrating the practical utility of this approach, Lohbeck et al.'s (2021) study of children's physical self-concept, found that improving physical self-concept was more effective in increasing physical activity than interventions focusing on external motivators. This shows that identity-aligned goals make behaviour and effort meaningful, and therefore sustainable.

Together, these theories suggest self-concept influences motivation through two complementary processes. Individuals are motivated to reduce discrepancies between their real and ideal selves. Additionally, individuals are motivated to pursue goals that are congruent with situationally active identities. Thus, self-concept directs behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster identity-based motivation'''
Identity-based motivation and Rogers' self theories suggest interventions should not focus on outcomes as goals, but identities as motivators. 

Ash will have greater motivation to train for her competition if her goal is identity focused: &quot;I am training hard because I want to be an Olympic swimmer&quot;. She may be less motivated if her goal is directed by an external reward: &quot;I have to train to please my parents&quot;. Supporting Ash to form and recognise identity-consistent goals will help her feel motivated. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== What role does perceived competence play in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

Self-concept incorporates evaluative beliefs about competence which influence how individuals approach goals. Individuals engage with goals they believe they are more capable of achieving (Marsh et al., 2019). For example, Seaton et al.'s (2014) longitudinal study of 2786 Australian students' found prior mathematics self-concept was a significant positive predictor of mastery-approach and a positive, but weaker predictor of performance-approach goal orientations. 

According to '''[[wikipedia:Goal_orientation|goal orientation theory]]''', a mastery goal approach involves being motivated to learn, whereas a performance goal approach is motivated by wanting to demonstrate competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Seaton et al.'s results, therefore, suggest that domain-specific self-concepts provide a motivational foundation for how students engage with learning tasks. When students perceive themselves as competent, they are more likely to be motivated to learn, rather than merely demonstrate their competence to others.  

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation, through contingent self-evaluations and self-handicapping. 

'''[[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]]''' refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. So, consistent with Oyserman and Rogers' theories, contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth. But contingent self-worth can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. 

Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, due to how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach (Lietz et al., 2026). This is consistent with '''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]]''' (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, results in low motivation. Attributional styles effect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). 

Presenting another pitfall of self-concept driven motivation, Fairlamb (2020) suggests contingent self-worth motivation is temporary. This is illustrated by Lawrence and Gonzales' (2022) results from 466 university students. Self-report measures of motivation and self-worth showed a positive correlation between academically contingent self-worth and self-worth boosting goals such as studying to graduate, rather than studying for the joy of it. Academically contingent self-worth was also positively correlated with amotivation, a lack of purpose and drive.  

van der Kaap-Deeder et al. (2016) explains the motivational boost from contingent self-worth is temporary because it is driven by a 'need to do well' motivation (introjected regulation), rather than intrinsic motivation (internal drive). These different motivation types are proposed by '''[[self-determination theory]]''', wherein intrinsic motivation provides a more sustainable motivational force, as the behaviour is powered by its inherent satisfaction (Zhang et al., 2016). Introjected motivation, however, is driven by internal guilt or pressure, resulting in stress and feeling a lack of autonomy (Taris et al., 2020). These uncomfortable affective experiences, paired with any perceived risk of failure is unmotivating, and causes maladaptive behaviours to emerge (van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2016). 

One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. '''[[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]]''' is the act of creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure may not be self-attributed (Török et al., 2018). A handicap generates a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This indicates that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept, reflecting the motivating quality of self-concept and indicating self-concept can hinder goal pursuit (Coudevylle et al., 2020). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. This highlights self-concept as an antecedent to self-handicapping and related motivations. In this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. As the [https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2333-1 multidimensional theory of self-concept] suggests, more specific self-concept branches are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should incorporate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation.[[File:Multidimensional model of self-concept diagram.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).|center]]Self-handicapping demonstrates that motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. To illustrate the behavioural effects of self-handicapping, Rhodewalt and Fairfield (1991) found that participants who scored highly on a measure of self-handicapping tendency and reported intentions to withhold effort in a test subsequently performed worse than others. This reflects the influence of self-concept on motivation; preserving one’s self-concept undermines motivation to succeed due to the threat of failure and what it means for one’s self concept. As Rogers (1959) and Oyserman (2015) suggest people are motivated to pursue identity-congruent goals, self-handicapping highlights a potential downside of identity-relevant goals. When success becomes central to the self, individuals become motivated to protect their self-concept rather than maximise performance. 

Repeatedly self-handicapping as motivated by threats to the self-concept, may further threaten self-concept (Schwinger et al., 2022). Recurrent self-handicapping may result in patterns of underperformance which may become incorporated into one's self-concept. This is consistent with reciprocal models of self-concept development, wherein self-concept-motivated behaviours can form patterns which circularly shape self-concept; these will be explored later in this chapter. 

Self-concept is an important guiding system for behaviour. Thus, self-deception through self-defensive strategies can create a dysfunctional self-concept which can have detrimental effects on emotional wellbeing and behaviour motivation. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and motivational vulnerability. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat'''
As illustrated by self-handicapping, holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Lawrence &amp; Gonzales, 2022; Showers et al., 2015). Thus, interventions can improve wellbeing by deemphasising the extent self-worth depends on outcomes. Promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concept domains, self-concept flexibility, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure may therefore improve both wellbeing and motivation.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How do motivational processes influence self-concept? ==
The research and theories have thus far detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.  

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

'''[[Self-determination theory]]''' proposes there are different types of motivation, influenced by three innate needs, competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). Understanding the temporal progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept.  

Ryan and Deci (2020) suggest behavioural regulation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. This includes external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 2). Extrinsic motivation is the drive to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment (Morris et al., 2022). How self-determined one's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when motivational needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 2, Van den Broeck et al., 2021).  

'''Table 2'''

Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Type of motivation 
!Ash's circumstances  
!Mechanism 
|-
|External regulation 
|Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.  
|Non-self-determined drive.  
|-
|Introjected regulation 
|Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. 
|Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.  
|-
|Identified regulation 
|Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).  
|More internalised and self-determined. 
|-
|Integrated regulation 
|Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).  
|Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. 
|-
|Intrinsic motivation 
|After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.  
|Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. 
|}
Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In this study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Self-report measures of perceived teacher support, STEM identity and STEM interest reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' autonomy, competence and relatedness. This resulted in increased STEM identity and interest. This supports the developmental pathway of self-determination theory proposed whereby fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and thus develops one's identity. 

Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.  

Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. This indicates self-concept and motivation are inherently intertwined.  

=== How does the reciprocal effects model explain the influence of motivation on self-concept? ===

The '''reciprocal effects model''' proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). Individuals with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, by influencing how individuals behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was a positively correlated with mathematics achievement. The effect of achievement on self-concept was moderated by motivational constructs of goal approach theory (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. 

However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants found motivational needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) posited by self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow ups. Physical self-concept was only supported as an antecedent to exercise motivation. This result conflicts the reciprocal effects model and may be explained by the timeframe of the study. An explanation for why no reciprocal effect was identified here when they were in Sewasew et al.'s (2018) study of mathematical self-concept is that reciprocal effects may be domain specific. The multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another. 

Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results (Wu et al., 2021) which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that employing different statistical models allowed results to both support and refute the finding that motivation measured by achievement influenced self-concept. Hübner et al. (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. 

Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Motivation is determined primarily by physical ability.
+Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour.
-Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment.
-Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster domain-specific self-concept'''
The multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 2019) suggests behaviour and outcomes are more closely linked to specific domains of self-concept than general self-concepts (Seaton et al., 2014; Sewasew et al., 2018). Therefore, motivational self-concept interventions should target specific behaviours and identities, not global self-concept. 

However, it is important for interventions to foster ''accurate'', positive self-concepts for specific domains. As Vu et al. (2024) note, only enhancing self-concept may reduce learning effort and thus negatively impact achievement, consequently impacting self-concept. Similarly, findings challenging the reciprocal effects model indicate that self-concept interventions should be combined with genuine opportunities for achievement (Sewasew et al., 2018; Sorjonen et al., 2024). 

This means interventions should focus on developing accurate positive beliefs about subject-specific capabilities, through achievement opportunities, rather than broadly encouraging feeling good about oneself.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
Self-concept is one's internal perception of oneself. Self-concept acts as a guiding compass that motivates and directs behaviours through processes of congruence, perceived self-competence, and responses to failure. While self-concept can help individuals make sense of and strive toward goals (Oyserman, 2024; Rogers, 1959) evaluations of competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019) and contingencies of self-worth (Showers et al., 2015) can undermine motivation. 

Motivation and subsequent behaviours also form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met, as proposed by the self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model (Garn &amp; Shen, 2015; Sewasew et al., 2018) emphasises that motivation may not have as great a role in shaping self-concept as once thought, underscoring the complexity of these processes. 

Nevertheless, these processes inform approaches to motivation-improving interventions. Effective interventions are unlikely to only target behaviour. Rather, interventions that shape how individuals understand themselves may produce more sustainable and high quality motivation by influencing the self-concepts that guide behaviour. 

With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who one believes they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who one becomes. 

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
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Van Den Broeck, A., Howard, J. L., Van Vaerenbergh, Y., Leroy, H., &amp; Gagné, M. (2021). Beyond intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis on self-determination theory’s multidimensional conceptualization of work motivation. ''Organizational Psychology Review, 11''(3), 240–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/20413866211006173  

Van Der Kaap-Deeder, J., Wouters, S., Verschueren, K., Briers, V., Deeren, B., &amp; Vansteenkiste, M. (2016). The pursuit of self-esteem and its motivational implications. ''Psychologica Belgica, 56''(2), 143–168. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.277  

Vandewalle, D., Nerstad, C. G., &amp; Dysvik, A. (2019). Goal orientation: A review of the miles traveled and the miles to go. ''Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 6''(1), 115-144. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062547  

Vu, T. V., Scharmer, A. L., van Triest, E., van Atteveldt, N., &amp; Meeter, M. (2024). The reciprocity between various motivation constructs and academic achievement: Asystematic review and multilevel meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. ''Educational Psychology, 44''(2), 136–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2307960  

Wehrle, K., &amp; Fasbender, U. (2018). Self-concept. In Zeigler-Hill, V., &amp; Shackelford, T. (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences'' (pp. 1-5). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2001-1  

Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. ''Psychological Review, 92''(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548  

Wu H., Guo Y., Yang Y., Zhao L., &amp; Guo C. (2021). A meta-analysis of the longitudinal relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 33''(4), 1749–1778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09600-1  

Yip, L., Thomas, E. F., Amiot, C., Louis, W. R., &amp; McGarty, C. (2024). Autonomous motives foster sustained commitment to action: Integrating self-determination theory and the social identity approach. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 50''(5), 750-765. https://doi/10.1177/01461672221148396  

Zhang, J., Zhang, Y., Song, Y., &amp; Gong, Z. (2016). The different relations of extrinsic, introjected, identified regulation and intrinsic motivation on employees’ performance. ''Management Decision, 54''(10), 2393–2412. https://doi.org/10.1108/md-01-2016-0007  }}
== External links ==
* [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept]  (TEDx Talks)
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

;Scenario

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being &quot;a swimmer&quot; is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Self-concept is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements about oneself. Self-concept guides individuals in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond that. Self-concept influences thinking, feelings and behaviour. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides choices, relationships and one's understanding of the world.  

For Ash in the case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how the understanding of oneself influences what one is motivated to do and examines how what one repeatedly does subsequently shapes self-concept. Understanding how and why individuals perceive themselves the way they do, and the impacts of self-concepts, can improve the understanding of human behaviour, help foster positive self-concept and facilitate the motivational properties of self-concept.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*How does self-concept shape motivation? 
*How do motivational processes influence self-concept?
*How can understanding self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
Self-concept is a cognitive framework containing a system of self-knowledge. It is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popular “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability) and [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). Although each self-concept theory approaches the construct differently, several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1; Marsh et al., 2019).  

'''Table 1'''

Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Property
!Significance for motivation
|-
|'''Multidimensional'''
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours
|-
|'''Hierarchical  '''
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours
|-
|'''Socially developed'''
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|'''Dynamic'''
|Self-concept changes with experience
|-
|'''Evaluative'''
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure
|-
|'''Descriptive  '''
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations
|}

== How does self-concept shape motivation? ==
A growing body of research suggests self-concept has important motivational properties. Motivation is an internal process which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour (Lens &amp; Vansteenkiste, 2020). Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional, ubiquitous and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation are both central guiding forces of behaviour and navigating the environment. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.  

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

Individuals pursue and evaluate goals in ways that align with their self-concept. This is driven by the human tendency to strive for alignment between self-concept and behaviour.  

'''[[wikipedia:Self-concept#:~:text=According%20to%20Rogers%2C%20everyone%20strives%20to%20reach%20an%20%22ideal%20self.%22|Rogers’ (1959) theory]]''' suggests the self is comprised of the real self and the ideal self. The alignment of these is known as congruence, a state where one has the capacity to pursue self-improving goals. When the ideal and real self do not align (incongruence), an individual experiences poorer mental health and acts defensively. This incongruence generates a psychological tension which acts as a motivating force, pushing the individual to either modify their behaviour to align with their self-concept, or modify their self-concept (Stephen, 2023).  

Supporting this concept, Howard and Dhillon (2022) found that using Rogers’ Q-sort, a measure of self-concept and congruency, can be an effective method of reflection to help individuals consciously choose goals that help achieve a congruent, ideal self. However, direct support for the foundational concept of congruence is sparse (Phillips et al., 1965). Rogers’ Q-sort was used to empirically test congruence. Phillips et al. (1965) found that incongruent participants, as indicated by Q-sort results, did not become more congruent over a 6-month measurement period, thus indicating a lack of movement motivated by incongruency. One explanation is that Rogers conceptualised self-concept as relatively stable. 

In response to the poor empirical support for congruence, contemporary research adopts a dynamic and context-dependent approach to self-concept. For example, Oyserman’s (2024) '''[[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|identity-based motivation theory]]''' suggests situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active and thus influence behaviour, providing a more flexible and realistic account of how self-concept influences behaviour in everyday situations. Like Rogers’ theory, it suggests individuals behave and interpret situations in ways that align with their identity. However, Oyserman (2015) expands Roger’s simplistic differentiation between real and ideal selves. The theory suggests a temporal flexibility of self-concept. A future self can be an active identity and thus individuals may act congruently to future selves. This may explain why future identities motivate present behaviour. Unlike Rogers' relatively stable model of the ideal self, identity-based motivation theory suggests future identities can become situationally salient and influence immediate behavioural decisions. 

The theory suggests that when behaviour is congruent with one’s identity, challenges in completing that behaviour are interpreted as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). Incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection through the process of difficulty interpretation (Oyserman, 2024). 

But why is importance motivating? Identity-relevant goals are motivating because they provide information about who one is and who one wants to become. This makes difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024).
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash is finding her long training sessions for the upcoming swimming competition difficult. However, when she's training, her future-self identity as an Olympic swimmer helps her interpret this as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, these difficulties may be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children and subsequent achievement increased when children thought about their future selves. Students were primed to think of their adult-self as near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. The effect of connecting to one’s future self lasted six months. These findings indicate that identifying with one’s future/ideal self can motivate goal attainment. Self-concept is malleable and moderates goal pursuit based on how one perceives themselves at a given time.  

'''''[Is this too abstracted/disconnected??]''''' Demonstrating the practical utility of this approach, Lohbeck et al.'s (2021) study of children's physical self-concept, found that improving physical self-concept was more effective in increasing physical activity than interventions focusing on external motivators. This shows that identity-aligned goals make behaviour and effort meaningful, and therefore sustainable.

Together, these theories suggest self-concept influences motivation through two complementary processes. Individuals are motivated to reduce discrepancies between their real and ideal selves. Additionally, individuals are motivated to pursue goals that are congruent with situationally active identities. Thus, self-concept directs behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster identity-based motivation'''
Identity-based motivation and Rogers' self theories suggest interventions should not focus on outcomes as goals, but identities as motivators. 

Ash will have greater motivation to train for her competition if her goal is identity focused: &quot;I am training hard because I want to be an Olympic swimmer&quot;. She may be less motivated if her goal is directed by an external reward: &quot;I have to train to please my parents&quot;. Supporting Ash to form and recognise identity-consistent goals will help her feel motivated. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== What role does perceived competence play in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

Self-concept incorporates evaluative beliefs about competence which influence how individuals approach goals. Individuals engage with goals they believe they are more capable of achieving (Marsh et al., 2019). For example, Seaton et al.'s (2014) longitudinal study of 2786 Australian students' found prior mathematics self-concept was a significant positive predictor of mastery-approach and a positive, but weaker predictor of performance-approach goal orientations. 

According to '''[[wikipedia:Goal_orientation|goal orientation theory]]''', a mastery goal approach involves being motivated to learn, whereas a performance goal approach is motivated by wanting to demonstrate competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Seaton et al.'s results, therefore, suggest that domain-specific self-concepts provide a motivational foundation for how students engage with learning tasks. When students perceive themselves as competent, they are more likely to be motivated to learn, rather than merely demonstrate their competence to others.  

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation, through contingent self-evaluations and self-handicapping. 

'''[[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]]''' refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. So, consistent with Oyserman and Rogers' theories, contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth. But contingent self-worth can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. 

Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, due to how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach (Lietz et al., 2026). This is consistent with '''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]]''' (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, results in low motivation. Attributional styles effect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). 

Presenting another pitfall of self-concept driven motivation, Fairlamb (2020) suggests contingent self-worth motivation is temporary. This is illustrated by Lawrence and Gonzales' (2022) results from 466 university students. Self-report measures of motivation and self-worth showed a positive correlation between academically contingent self-worth and self-worth boosting goals such as studying to graduate, rather than studying for the joy of it. Academically contingent self-worth was also positively correlated with amotivation, a lack of purpose and drive.  

van der Kaap-Deeder et al. (2016) explains the motivational boost from contingent self-worth is temporary because it is driven by a 'need to do well' motivation (introjected regulation), rather than intrinsic motivation (internal drive). These different motivation types are proposed by '''[[self-determination theory]]''', wherein intrinsic motivation provides a more sustainable motivational force, as the behaviour is powered by its inherent satisfaction (Zhang et al., 2016). Introjected motivation, however, is driven by internal guilt or pressure, resulting in stress and feeling a lack of autonomy (Taris et al., 2020). These uncomfortable affective experiences, paired with any perceived risk of failure is unmotivating, and causes maladaptive behaviours to emerge (van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2016). 

One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. '''[[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]]''' is the act of creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure may not be self-attributed (Török et al., 2018). A handicap generates a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This indicates that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept, reflecting the motivating quality of self-concept and indicating self-concept can hinder goal pursuit (Coudevylle et al., 2020). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. This highlights self-concept as an antecedent to self-handicapping and related motivations. In this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. As the [https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2333-1 multidimensional theory of self-concept] suggests, more specific self-concept branches are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should incorporate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation.[[File:Multidimensional model of self-concept diagram.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).|center]]Self-handicapping demonstrates that motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. To illustrate the behavioural effects of self-handicapping, Rhodewalt and Fairfield (1991) found that participants who scored highly on a measure of self-handicapping tendency and reported intentions to withhold effort in a test subsequently performed worse than others. This reflects the influence of self-concept on motivation; preserving one’s self-concept undermines motivation to succeed due to the threat of failure and what it means for one’s self concept. As Rogers (1959) and Oyserman (2015) suggest people are motivated to pursue identity-congruent goals, self-handicapping highlights a potential downside of identity-relevant goals. When success becomes central to the self, individuals become motivated to protect their self-concept rather than maximise performance. 

Repeatedly self-handicapping as motivated by threats to the self-concept, may further threaten self-concept (Schwinger et al., 2022). Recurrent self-handicapping may result in patterns of underperformance which may become incorporated into one's self-concept. This is consistent with reciprocal models of self-concept development, wherein self-concept-motivated behaviours can form patterns which circularly shape self-concept; these will be explored later in this chapter. 

Self-concept is an important guiding system for behaviour. Thus, self-deception through self-defensive strategies can create a dysfunctional self-concept which can have detrimental effects on emotional wellbeing and behaviour motivation. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and motivational vulnerability. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat'''
As illustrated by self-handicapping, holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Lawrence &amp; Gonzales, 2022; Showers et al., 2015). Thus, interventions can improve wellbeing by deemphasising the extent self-worth depends on outcomes. Promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concept domains, self-concept flexibility, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure may therefore improve both wellbeing and motivation.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How do motivational processes influence self-concept? ==
The research and theories have thus far detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.  

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

'''[[Self-determination theory]]''' proposes there are different types of motivation, influenced by three innate needs, competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). Understanding the temporal progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept.  

Ryan and Deci (2020) suggest behavioural regulation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. This includes external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 2). Extrinsic motivation is the drive to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment (Morris et al., 2022). How self-determined one's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when motivational needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 2, Van den Broeck et al., 2021).  

'''Table 2'''

Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Type of motivation 
!Ash's circumstances  
!Mechanism 
|-
|External regulation 
|Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.  
|Non-self-determined drive.  
|-
|Introjected regulation 
|Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. 
|Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.  
|-
|Identified regulation 
|Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).  
|More internalised and self-determined. 
|-
|Integrated regulation 
|Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).  
|Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. 
|-
|Intrinsic motivation 
|After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.  
|Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. 
|}
Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In this study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Self-report measures of perceived teacher support, STEM identity and STEM interest reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' autonomy, competence and relatedness. This resulted in increased STEM identity and interest. This supports the developmental pathway of self-determination theory proposed whereby fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and thus develops one's identity. 

Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.  

Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. This indicates self-concept and motivation are inherently intertwined.  

=== How does the reciprocal effects model explain the influence of motivation on self-concept? ===

The '''reciprocal effects model''' proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). Individuals with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, by influencing how individuals behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was a positively correlated with mathematics achievement. The effect of achievement on self-concept was moderated by motivational constructs of goal approach theory (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. 

However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants found motivational needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) posited by self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow ups. Physical self-concept was only supported as an antecedent to exercise motivation. This result conflicts the reciprocal effects model and may be explained by the timeframe of the study. An explanation for why no reciprocal effect was identified here when they were in Sewasew et al.'s (2018) study of mathematical self-concept is that reciprocal effects may be domain specific. The multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another. 

Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results (Wu et al., 2021) which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that employing different statistical models allowed results to both support and refute the finding that motivation measured by achievement influenced self-concept. Hübner et al. (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. 

Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Motivation is determined primarily by physical ability.
+Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour.
-Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment.
-Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster domain-specific self-concept'''
The multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 2019) suggests behaviour and outcomes are more closely linked to specific domains of self-concept than general self-concepts (Seaton et al., 2014; Sewasew et al., 2018). Therefore, motivational self-concept interventions should target specific behaviours and identities, not global self-concept. 

However, it is important for interventions to foster ''accurate'', positive self-concepts for specific domains. As Vu et al. (2024) note, only enhancing self-concept may reduce learning effort and thus negatively impact achievement, consequently impacting self-concept. Similarly, findings challenging the reciprocal effects model indicate that self-concept interventions should be combined with genuine opportunities for achievement (Sewasew et al., 2018; Sorjonen et al., 2024). 

This means interventions should focus on developing accurate positive beliefs about subject-specific capabilities, through achievement opportunities, rather than broadly encouraging feeling good about oneself.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
Self-concept is one's internal perception of oneself. Self-concept acts as a guiding compass that motivates and directs behaviours through processes of congruence, perceived self-competence, and responses to failure. While self-concept can help individuals make sense of and strive toward goals (Oyserman, 2024; Rogers, 1959) evaluations of competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019) and contingencies of self-worth (Showers et al., 2015) can undermine motivation. 

Motivation and subsequent behaviours also form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met, as proposed by the self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model (Garn &amp; Shen, 2015; Sewasew et al., 2018) emphasises that motivation may not have as great a role in shaping self-concept as once thought, underscoring the complexity of these processes. 

Nevertheless, these processes inform approaches to motivation-improving interventions. Effective interventions are unlikely to only target behaviour. Rather, interventions that shape how individuals understand themselves may produce more sustainable and high quality motivation by influencing the self-concepts that guide behaviour. 

With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who one believes they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who one becomes. 

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
{{Hanging indent|Bandhu, D., Mohan, M. M., Nittala, N. A. P., Jadhav, P., Bhadauria, A., &amp; Saxena, K. K. (2024). Theories of motivation: A comprehensive analysis of human behavior drivers. ''Acta Psychologica, 244'', 104177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104177   

Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8  

Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., &amp; Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237  

Fairlamb, S. (2022). We need to talk about self-esteem: The effect of contingent self-worth on student achievement and well-being. ''Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 8''(1), 45–57. https://doi/10.1037/stl0000205  

Garn, A., &amp; Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994  

Howard, C., &amp; Dhillon, J. K. (2022). Q-sort as a tool for promoting outstanding leadership. ''Practice, 4''(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/25783858.2021.1882264 

Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., &amp; Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6  

Lawrence, J. S., &amp; Gonzales, J. E. (2022). Academically-contingent self-worth: Different dimensions differentially predict future vulnerability. ''Current Psychology 42'', 24947–24961 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03516-x  

Lens, W., &amp; Vansteenkiste, M. (2020). Motivation: About the “why” and “what for” of human behavior. In ''Psychological concepts'' (pp. 249-270). Psychology Press. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003076384-12/motivation-human-behavior-willy-lens-maarten-vansteenkiste  

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Lohbeck, A., Von Keitz, P., Hohmann, A., &amp; Daseking, M. (2021). Children's physical self-concept, motivation, and physical performance: Does physical self-concept or motivation play a mediating role? ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669936  

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Phillips, E. L., Raiford, A., &amp; El-Batrawi, S. (1965). The Q sort reevaluated. ''Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29''(5), 422–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022506  

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Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860  

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Zhang, J., Zhang, Y., Song, Y., &amp; Gong, Z. (2016). The different relations of extrinsic, introjected, identified regulation and intrinsic motivation on employees’ performance. ''Management Decision, 54''(10), 2393–2412. https://doi.org/10.1108/md-01-2016-0007  }}
== External links ==
* [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept]  (TEDx Talks)
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

;Scenario

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being &quot;a swimmer&quot; is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Self-concept is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements about oneself. Self-concept guides individuals in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond that. Self-concept influences thinking, feelings and behaviour. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides choices, relationships and one's understanding of the world.  

For Ash in the case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how the understanding of oneself influences what one is motivated to do and examines how what one repeatedly does subsequently shapes self-concept. Understanding how and why individuals perceive themselves the way they do, and the impacts of self-concepts, can improve the understanding of human behaviour, help foster positive self-concept and facilitate the motivational properties of self-concept.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*How does self-concept shape motivation? 
*How do motivational processes influence self-concept?
*How can understanding self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
Self-concept is a cognitive framework containing a system of self-knowledge. It is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popular “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability) and [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). Although each self-concept theory approaches the construct differently, several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1; Marsh et al., 2019).  

'''Table 1'''

Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Property
!Significance for motivation
|-
|'''Multidimensional'''
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours
|-
|'''Hierarchical  '''
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours
|-
|'''Socially developed'''
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|'''Dynamic'''
|Self-concept changes with experience
|-
|'''Evaluative'''
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure
|-
|'''Descriptive  '''
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations
|}

== How does self-concept shape motivation? ==
A growing body of research suggests self-concept has important motivational properties. Motivation is an internal process which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour (Lens &amp; Vansteenkiste, 2020). Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional, ubiquitous and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation are both central guiding forces of behaviour and navigating the environment. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.  

=== Self-discrepancy theory: The motivational power of ideal selves ===

''[changing this to focus on self-discrepancy theory instead]''

Individuals pursue and evaluate goals in ways that align with their self-concept. This is driven by the human tendency to strive for alignment between self-concept and behaviour.  

'''[[wikipedia:Self-concept#:~:text=According%20to%20Rogers%2C%20everyone%20strives%20to%20reach%20an%20%22ideal%20self.%22|Rogers’ (1959) theory]]''' suggests the self is comprised of the real self and the ideal self. The alignment of these is known as congruence, a state where one has the capacity to pursue self-improving goals. When the ideal and real self do not align (incongruence), an individual experiences poorer mental health and acts defensively. This incongruence generates a psychological tension which acts as a motivating force, pushing the individual to either modify their behaviour to align with their self-concept, or modify their self-concept (Stephen, 2023).  

Supporting this concept, Howard and Dhillon (2022) found that using Rogers’ Q-sort, a measure of self-concept and congruency, can be an effective method of reflection to help individuals consciously choose goals that help achieve a congruent, ideal self. However, direct support for the foundational concept of congruence is sparse (Phillips et al., 1965). Rogers’ Q-sort was used to empirically test congruence. Phillips et al. (1965) found that incongruent participants, as indicated by Q-sort results, did not become more congruent over a 6-month measurement period, thus indicating a lack of movement motivated by incongruency. One explanation is that Rogers conceptualised self-concept as relatively stable. 

=== Identity-based motivation theory: How active identities shape goal engagement ===
In response to the poor empirical support for congruence, contemporary research adopts a dynamic and context-dependent approach to self-concept. For example, Oyserman’s (2024) '''[[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|identity-based motivation theory]]''' suggests situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active and thus influence behaviour, providing a more flexible and realistic account of how self-concept influences behaviour in everyday situations. Like Rogers’ theory, it suggests individuals behave and interpret situations in ways that align with their identity. However, Oyserman (2015) expands Roger’s simplistic differentiation between real and ideal selves. The theory suggests a temporal flexibility of self-concept. A future self can be an active identity and thus individuals may act congruently to future selves. This may explain why future identities motivate present behaviour. Unlike Rogers' relatively stable model of the ideal self, identity-based motivation theory suggests future identities can become situationally salient and influence immediate behavioural decisions. 

The theory suggests that when behaviour is congruent with one’s identity, challenges in completing that behaviour are interpreted as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). Incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection through the process of difficulty interpretation (Oyserman, 2024). 

But why is importance motivating? Identity-relevant goals are motivating because they provide information about who one is and who one wants to become. This makes difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024).
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash is finding her long training sessions for the upcoming swimming competition difficult. However, when she's training, her future-self identity as an Olympic swimmer helps her interpret this as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, these difficulties may be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children and subsequent achievement increased when children thought about their future selves. Students were primed to think of their adult-self as near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. The effect of connecting to one’s future self lasted six months. These findings indicate that identifying with one’s future/ideal self can motivate goal attainment. Self-concept is malleable and moderates goal pursuit based on how one perceives themselves at a given time.  

'''''[Is this too abstracted/disconnected??]''''' Demonstrating the practical utility of this approach, Lohbeck et al.'s (2021) study of children's physical self-concept, found that improving physical self-concept was more effective in increasing physical activity than interventions focusing on external motivators. This shows that identity-aligned goals make behaviour and effort meaningful, and therefore sustainable.

Together, these theories suggest self-concept influences motivation through two complementary processes. Individuals are motivated to reduce discrepancies between their real and ideal selves. Additionally, individuals are motivated to pursue goals that are congruent with situationally active identities. Thus, self-concept directs behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster identity-based motivation'''
Identity-based motivation and Rogers' self theories suggest interventions should not focus on outcomes as goals, but identities as motivators. 

Ash will have greater motivation to train for her competition if her goal is identity focused: &quot;I am training hard because I want to be an Olympic swimmer&quot;. She may be less motivated if her goal is directed by an external reward: &quot;I have to train to please my parents&quot;. Supporting Ash to form and recognise identity-consistent goals will help her feel motivated. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Perceived competence: The motivational power of self-evaluations ===

Self-concept incorporates evaluative beliefs about competence which influence how individuals approach goals. Individuals engage with goals they believe they are more capable of achieving (Marsh et al., 2019). For example, Seaton et al.'s (2014) longitudinal study of 2786 Australian students' found prior mathematics self-concept was a significant positive predictor of mastery-approach and a positive, but weaker predictor of performance-approach goal orientations. 

According to '''[[wikipedia:Goal_orientation|goal orientation theory]]''', a mastery goal approach involves being motivated to learn, whereas a performance goal approach is motivated by wanting to demonstrate competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Seaton et al.'s results, therefore, suggest that domain-specific self-concepts provide a motivational foundation for how students engage with learning tasks. When students perceive themselves as competent, they are more likely to be motivated to learn, rather than merely demonstrate their competence to others.  

=== Self-worth contingencies: How self-concept can undermine motivation ===

The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation, through contingent self-evaluations and self-handicapping. 

'''[[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]]''' refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. So, consistent with Oyserman and Rogers' theories, contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth. But contingent self-worth can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. 

Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, due to how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach (Lietz et al., 2026). This is consistent with '''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]]''' (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, results in low motivation. Attributional styles effect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). 

Presenting another pitfall of self-concept driven motivation, Fairlamb (2020) suggests contingent self-worth motivation is temporary. This is illustrated by Lawrence and Gonzales' (2022) results from 466 university students. Self-report measures of motivation and self-worth showed a positive correlation between academically contingent self-worth and self-worth boosting goals such as studying to graduate, rather than studying for the joy of it. Academically contingent self-worth was also positively correlated with amotivation, a lack of purpose and drive.  

van der Kaap-Deeder et al. (2016) explains the motivational boost from contingent self-worth is temporary because it is driven by a 'need to do well' motivation (introjected regulation), rather than intrinsic motivation (internal drive). These different motivation types are proposed by '''[[self-determination theory]]''', wherein intrinsic motivation provides a more sustainable motivational force, as the behaviour is powered by its inherent satisfaction (Zhang et al., 2016). Introjected motivation, however, is driven by internal guilt or pressure, resulting in stress and feeling a lack of autonomy (Taris et al., 2020). These uncomfortable affective experiences, paired with any perceived risk of failure is unmotivating, and causes maladaptive behaviours to emerge (van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2016). 

One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. '''[[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]]''' is the act of creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure may not be self-attributed (Török et al., 2018). A handicap generates a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This indicates that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept, reflecting the motivating quality of self-concept and indicating self-concept can hinder goal pursuit (Coudevylle et al., 2020). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. This highlights self-concept as an antecedent to self-handicapping and related motivations. In this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. As the [https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2333-1 multidimensional theory of self-concept] suggests, more specific self-concept branches are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should incorporate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation.[[File:Multidimensional model of self-concept diagram.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).|center]]Self-handicapping demonstrates that motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. To illustrate the behavioural effects of self-handicapping, Rhodewalt and Fairfield (1991) found that participants who scored highly on a measure of self-handicapping tendency and reported intentions to withhold effort in a test subsequently performed worse than others. This reflects the influence of self-concept on motivation; preserving one’s self-concept undermines motivation to succeed due to the threat of failure and what it means for one’s self concept. As Rogers (1959) and Oyserman (2015) suggest people are motivated to pursue identity-congruent goals, self-handicapping highlights a potential downside of identity-relevant goals. When success becomes central to the self, individuals become motivated to protect their self-concept rather than maximise performance. 

Repeatedly self-handicapping as motivated by threats to the self-concept, may further threaten self-concept (Schwinger et al., 2022). Recurrent self-handicapping may result in patterns of underperformance which may become incorporated into one's self-concept. This is consistent with reciprocal models of self-concept development, wherein self-concept-motivated behaviours can form patterns which circularly shape self-concept; these will be explored later in this chapter. 

Self-concept is an important guiding system for behaviour. Thus, self-deception through self-defensive strategies can create a dysfunctional self-concept which can have detrimental effects on emotional wellbeing and behaviour motivation. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and motivational vulnerability. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat'''
As illustrated by self-handicapping, holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Lawrence &amp; Gonzales, 2022; Showers et al., 2015). Thus, interventions can improve wellbeing by deemphasising the extent self-worth depends on outcomes. Promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concept domains, self-concept flexibility, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure may therefore improve both wellbeing and motivation.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How do motivational processes influence self-concept? ==
The research and theories have thus far detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.  

=== Self-determination theory: How internalising motivation shapes self-concept ===

'''[[Self-determination theory]]''' proposes there are different types of motivation, influenced by three innate needs, competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). Understanding the temporal progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept.  

Ryan and Deci (2020) suggest behavioural regulation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. This includes external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 2). Extrinsic motivation is the drive to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment (Morris et al., 2022). How self-determined one's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when motivational needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 2, Van den Broeck et al., 2021).  

'''Table 2'''

Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Type of motivation 
!Ash's circumstances  
!Mechanism 
|-
|External regulation 
|Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.  
|Non-self-determined drive.  
|-
|Introjected regulation 
|Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. 
|Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.  
|-
|Identified regulation 
|Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).  
|More internalised and self-determined. 
|-
|Integrated regulation 
|Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).  
|Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. 
|-
|Intrinsic motivation 
|After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.  
|Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. 
|}
Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In this study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Self-report measures of perceived teacher support, STEM identity and STEM interest reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' autonomy, competence and relatedness. This resulted in increased STEM identity and interest. This supports the developmental pathway of self-determination theory proposed whereby fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and thus develops one's identity. 

Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.  

Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. This indicates self-concept and motivation are inherently intertwined.  

=== The reciprocal effects model: The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development ===

The '''reciprocal effects model''' proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). Individuals with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, by influencing how individuals behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was a positively correlated with mathematics achievement. The effect of achievement on self-concept was moderated by motivational constructs of goal approach theory (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. 

However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants found motivational needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) posited by self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow ups. Physical self-concept was only supported as an antecedent to exercise motivation. This result conflicts the reciprocal effects model and may be explained by the timeframe of the study. An explanation for why no reciprocal effect was identified here when they were in Sewasew et al.'s (2018) study of mathematical self-concept is that reciprocal effects may be domain specific. The multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another. 

Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results (Wu et al., 2021) which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that employing different statistical models allowed results to both support and refute the finding that motivation measured by achievement influenced self-concept. Hübner et al. (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. 

Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Motivation is determined primarily by physical ability.
+Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour.
-Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment.
-Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster domain-specific self-concept'''
The multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 2019) suggests behaviour and outcomes are more closely linked to specific domains of self-concept than general self-concepts (Seaton et al., 2014; Sewasew et al., 2018). Therefore, motivational self-concept interventions should target specific behaviours and identities, not global self-concept. 

However, it is important for interventions to foster ''accurate'', positive self-concepts for specific domains. As Vu et al. (2024) note, only enhancing self-concept may reduce learning effort and thus negatively impact achievement, consequently impacting self-concept. Similarly, findings challenging the reciprocal effects model indicate that self-concept interventions should be combined with genuine opportunities for achievement (Sewasew et al., 2018; Sorjonen et al., 2024). 

This means interventions should focus on developing accurate positive beliefs about subject-specific capabilities, through achievement opportunities, rather than broadly encouraging feeling good about oneself.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
Self-concept is one's internal perception of oneself. Self-concept acts as a guiding compass that motivates and directs behaviours through processes of congruence, perceived self-competence, and responses to failure. While self-concept can help individuals make sense of and strive toward goals (Oyserman, 2024; Rogers, 1959) evaluations of competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019) and contingencies of self-worth (Showers et al., 2015) can undermine motivation. 

Motivation and subsequent behaviours also form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met, as proposed by the self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model (Garn &amp; Shen, 2015; Sewasew et al., 2018) emphasises that motivation may not have as great a role in shaping self-concept as once thought, underscoring the complexity of these processes. 

Nevertheless, these processes inform approaches to motivation-improving interventions. Effective interventions are unlikely to only target behaviour. Rather, interventions that shape how individuals understand themselves may produce more sustainable and high quality motivation by influencing the self-concepts that guide behaviour. 

With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who one believes they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who one becomes. 

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
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Chiu, T.K. (2023). Using self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student STEM interest and identity development. ''Instructional Science, 52'', 89–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-023-09642-8  

Coudevylle, G. R., Boulley-Escriva, G., Finez, L., Eugène, K., &amp; Robin, N. (2020). An experimental investigation of claimed self-handicapping strategies across motivational climates based on achievement goal and self-determination theories. ''Educational Psychology, 40''(8), 1002–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2020.1746237  

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Garn, A., &amp; Shen, B. (2015). Physical self-concept and basic psychological needs in exercise: Are there reciprocal effects? ''International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13''(2), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2014.940994  

Howard, C., &amp; Dhillon, J. K. (2022). Q-sort as a tool for promoting outstanding leadership. ''Practice, 4''(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/25783858.2021.1882264 

Hübner, N., Wagner, W., Zitzmann, S., &amp; Nagengast, B. (2023). How strong is the evidence for a causal reciprocal effect? Contrasting traditional and new methods to investigate the reciprocal effects model of self-concept and achievement. ''Educational Psychology Review, 35'', 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09724-6  

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Lens, W., &amp; Vansteenkiste, M. (2020). Motivation: About the “why” and “what for” of human behavior. In ''Psychological concepts'' (pp. 249-270). Psychology Press. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003076384-12/motivation-human-behavior-willy-lens-maarten-vansteenkiste  

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Lohbeck, A., Von Keitz, P., Hohmann, A., &amp; Daseking, M. (2021). Children's physical self-concept, motivation, and physical performance: Does physical self-concept or motivation play a mediating role? ''Frontiers in Psychology, 12''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669936  

Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., &amp; Craven, R. G. (2018). Chapter 6: Competence self-perceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, &amp; D. S. Yeager (Eds.), ''Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application'' (pp. 85-115). Guilford Publications.  

Marsh, H. W., Seaton, M., Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., &amp; Horwood, M. S. (2019). The centrality of academic self-concept to motivation and learning. In K. A. Renninger, &amp; S. E. Hidi (Eds.), ''The Cambridge handbook of motivation and learning'' (pp. 36-62). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316823279.004  

Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., &amp; Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic v. extrinsic motivation. ''Psychological Medicine, 52''(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291722001611 

Nurra, C., &amp; Oyserman, D. (2018). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective. ''Self and Identity, 17''(3), 343-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003  

Oyserman, D. (2015). Identity-based motivation. ''Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38'', 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0171  

Oyserman, D. (2024), Identity-based motivation and the motivational consequences of difficulty. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 18'', e70028. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.70028  

Phillips, E. L., Raiford, A., &amp; El-Batrawi, S. (1965). The Q sort reevaluated. ''Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29''(5), 422–425. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022506  

Rhodewalt, F., &amp; Fairfield, M. (1991). Claimed self-handicaps and the self-handicapper: The relation of reduction in intended effort to performance. ''Journal of Research in Personality, 25''(4), 402-417. https://doi/10.1016/0092-6566(91)90030-T  

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Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61'', 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860  

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== External links ==
* [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept]  (TEDx Talks)
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

;Scenario

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being &quot;a swimmer&quot; is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (see Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Self-concept is an individual's understanding of who they are and how they feel about themselves. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements about oneself. Self-concept guides individuals in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond that. Self-concept influences thinking, feelings and behaviour. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides choices, relationships and one's understanding of the world.  

For Ash in the case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how the understanding of oneself influences what one is motivated to do and examines how what one repeatedly does subsequently shapes self-concept. Understanding how and why individuals perceive themselves the way they do, and the impacts of self-concepts, can improve the understanding of human behaviour, help foster positive self-concept and facilitate the motivational properties of self-concept.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*How does self-concept shape motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
Self-concept is a cognitive framework containing a system of self-knowledge. It is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popular “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability) and [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). Although each self-concept theory approaches the construct differently, several common properties emerge and provide the foundation for understanding its motivational effects (see Table 1; Marsh et al., 2019).  

'''Table 1'''

Self-Concept Properties and Their Significance for Motivation.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Property
!Significance for motivation
|-
|'''Multidimensional'''
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours
|-
|'''Hierarchical  '''
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours
|-
|'''Socially developed'''
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|'''Dynamic'''
|Self-concept changes with experience
|-
|'''Evaluative'''
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure
|-
|'''Descriptive  '''
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations
|}

== How does self-concept shape motivation? ==
A growing body of research suggests self-concept has important motivational properties. Motivation is an internal process which initiates, directs and sustains behaviour (Lens &amp; Vansteenkiste, 2020). Like self-concept, motivation is multidimensional, ubiquitous and central to human behaviour (Bandhu et al., 2024). This creates an interesting intersection of properties; self-concept and motivation are both central guiding forces of behaviour and navigating the environment. This section explores how self-concept influences motivation.  

=== Self-discrepancy theory: The motivational power of ideal selves ===

''[changing this to focus on self-discrepancy theory instead]''

Individuals pursue and evaluate goals in ways that align with their self-concept. This is driven by the human tendency to strive for alignment between self-concept and behaviour.  

'''[[wikipedia:Self-concept#:~:text=According%20to%20Rogers%2C%20everyone%20strives%20to%20reach%20an%20%22ideal%20self.%22|Rogers’ (1959) theory]]''' suggests the self is comprised of the real self and the ideal self. The alignment of these is known as congruence, a state where one has the capacity to pursue self-improving goals. When the ideal and real self do not align (incongruence), an individual experiences poorer mental health and acts defensively. This incongruence generates a psychological tension which acts as a motivating force, pushing the individual to either modify their behaviour to align with their self-concept, or modify their self-concept (Stephen, 2023).  

Supporting this concept, Howard and Dhillon (2022) found that using Rogers’ Q-sort, a measure of self-concept and congruency, can be an effective method of reflection to help individuals consciously choose goals that help achieve a congruent, ideal self. However, direct support for the foundational concept of congruence is sparse (Phillips et al., 1965). Rogers’ Q-sort was used to empirically test congruence. Phillips et al. (1965) found that incongruent participants, as indicated by Q-sort results, did not become more congruent over a 6-month measurement period, thus indicating a lack of movement motivated by incongruency. One explanation is that Rogers conceptualised self-concept as relatively stable. 

=== Identity-based motivation theory: How active identities shape goal engagement ===
In response to the poor empirical support for congruence, contemporary research adopts a dynamic and context-dependent approach to self-concept. For example, Oyserman’s (2024) '''[[wikipedia:Identity_based_motivation|identity-based motivation theory]]''' suggests situations influence which aspects of self-concept are active and thus influence behaviour, providing a more flexible and realistic account of how self-concept influences behaviour in everyday situations. Like Rogers’ theory, it suggests individuals behave and interpret situations in ways that align with their identity. However, Oyserman (2015) expands Roger’s simplistic differentiation between real and ideal selves. The theory suggests a temporal flexibility of self-concept. A future self can be an active identity and thus individuals may act congruently to future selves. This may explain why future identities motivate present behaviour. Unlike Rogers' relatively stable model of the ideal self, identity-based motivation theory suggests future identities can become situationally salient and influence immediate behavioural decisions. 

The theory suggests that when behaviour is congruent with one’s identity, challenges in completing that behaviour are interpreted as evidence the behaviour is important (Oyserman, 2015). Incongruent actions that have the same challenges are interpreted as pointless. This means that identities mediate motivation and help goal selection through the process of difficulty interpretation (Oyserman, 2024). 

But why is importance motivating? Identity-relevant goals are motivating because they provide information about who one is and who one wants to become. This makes difficulty meaningful rather than discouraging (Oyserman, 2024).
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash is finding her long training sessions for the upcoming swimming competition difficult. However, when she's training, her future-self identity as an Olympic swimmer helps her interpret this as a meaningful challenge. For her non-swimmer friend, Riley, these difficulties may be interpreted as evidence swimming is not for them.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Nurra and Oyserman (2018) found that motivation to pursue future identity-relevant goals in school children and subsequent achievement increased when children thought about their future selves. Students were primed to think of their adult-self as near or far. Students in the adult-self-is-near group achieved significantly higher final grades than the adult-self-is-far group. The effect of connecting to one’s future self lasted six months. These findings indicate that identifying with one’s future/ideal self can motivate goal attainment. Self-concept is malleable and moderates goal pursuit based on how one perceives themselves at a given time.  

'''''[Is this too abstracted/disconnected??]''''' Demonstrating the practical utility of this approach, Lohbeck et al.'s (2021) study of children's physical self-concept, found that improving physical self-concept was more effective in increasing physical activity than interventions focusing on external motivators. This shows that identity-aligned goals make behaviour and effort meaningful, and therefore sustainable.

Together, these theories suggest self-concept influences motivation through two complementary processes. Individuals are motivated to reduce discrepancies between their real and ideal selves. Additionally, individuals are motivated to pursue goals that are congruent with situationally active identities. Thus, self-concept directs behaviour by defining desirable outcomes and shaping how challenges and opportunities are interpreted. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster identity-based motivation'''
Identity-based motivation and Rogers' self theories suggest interventions should not focus on outcomes as goals, but identities as motivators. 

Ash will have greater motivation to train for her competition if her goal is identity focused: &quot;I am training hard because I want to be an Olympic swimmer&quot;. She may be less motivated if her goal is directed by an external reward: &quot;I have to train to please my parents&quot;. Supporting Ash to form and recognise identity-consistent goals will help her feel motivated. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Perceived competence: The motivational power of self-evaluations ===

Self-concept incorporates evaluative beliefs about competence which influence how individuals approach goals. Individuals engage with goals they believe they are more capable of achieving (Marsh et al., 2019). For example, Seaton et al.'s (2014) longitudinal study of 2786 Australian students' found prior mathematics self-concept was a significant positive predictor of mastery-approach and a positive, but weaker predictor of performance-approach goal orientations. 

According to '''[[wikipedia:Goal_orientation|goal orientation theory]]''', a mastery goal approach involves being motivated to learn, whereas a performance goal approach is motivated by wanting to demonstrate competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Seaton et al.'s results, therefore, suggest that domain-specific self-concepts provide a motivational foundation for how students engage with learning tasks. When students perceive themselves as competent, they are more likely to be motivated to learn, rather than merely demonstrate their competence to others.  

=== Self-worth contingencies: How self-concept can undermine motivation ===

The theories and research discussed so far optimistically show how self-concept facilitates motivation. However, self-concept can also undermine motivation, through contingent self-evaluations and self-handicapping. 

'''[[wikipedia:Contingent_self-esteem#Self-esteem_and_contingent_self-worth|Self-worth contingencies]]''' refer to the standards one feels they must meet to have value as a person (Showers et al., 2015). For individuals who have highly contingent self-worth, goal attainment is closely tied to their self-concept, meaning failure threatens their self-concept. So, consistent with Oyserman and Rogers' theories, contingent self-worth motivates pursuit of success for domains that are important for one's self-worth. But contingent self-worth can result in avoidant behaviour and strong responses to failure. 

Lietz et al. (2026) qualitatively studied 17 participants' identity-shaped goals and found that failing to achieve these goals resulted in negative and severe emotional responses. Further, participants tended to attribute failure to personal shortcomings, due to how closely held the goal was to their self-concept. This resulted in reduced motivation to reattempt, or blind pursuit of the same goal without re-examining the approach (Lietz et al., 2026). This is consistent with '''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Attribution theory and emotion|attribution theory]]''' (Weiner, 1985), which suggests that causal thinking processes, whereby one attributes outcomes to stable, uncontrollable factors, results in low motivation. Attributional styles effect self-evaluations and thus can undermine motivation when failure is attributed to stable aspects of the self (Bandhu et al., 2024). 

Presenting another pitfall of self-concept driven motivation, Fairlamb (2020) suggests contingent self-worth motivation is temporary. This is illustrated by Lawrence and Gonzales' (2022) results from 466 university students. Self-report measures of motivation and self-worth showed a positive correlation between academically contingent self-worth and self-worth boosting goals such as studying to graduate, rather than studying for the joy of it. Academically contingent self-worth was also positively correlated with amotivation, a lack of purpose and drive.  

van der Kaap-Deeder et al. (2016) explains the motivational boost from contingent self-worth is temporary because it is driven by a 'need to do well' motivation (introjected regulation), rather than intrinsic motivation (internal drive). These different motivation types are proposed by '''[[self-determination theory]]''', wherein intrinsic motivation provides a more sustainable motivational force, as the behaviour is powered by its inherent satisfaction (Zhang et al., 2016). Introjected motivation, however, is driven by internal guilt or pressure, resulting in stress and feeling a lack of autonomy (Taris et al., 2020). These uncomfortable affective experiences, paired with any perceived risk of failure is unmotivating, and causes maladaptive behaviours to emerge (van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2016). 

One such response to the threat of failure is self-handicapping. '''[[w:Self-handicapping|Self-handicapping]]''' is the act of creating obstacles to one's own goal so that failure may not be self-attributed (Török et al., 2018). A handicap generates a plausible external explanation for an outcome other than the self. This indicates that a handicapper is willing to increase the probability of failure to protect their self-concept, reflecting the motivating quality of self-concept and indicating self-concept can hinder goal pursuit (Coudevylle et al., 2020). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study comprehension check:'''
Ash cares a lot about succeeding in her swimming competition. To protect her self-concept as a successful swimmer, Ash may feign a mild illness at the competition so that any failure is attributed to her illness, rather than her competence.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

Schwinger et al. (2022) found a medium negative correlation between general self-evaluations and self-handicapping and a medium positive correlation between fear of failure and self-handicapping. This highlights self-concept as an antecedent to self-handicapping and related motivations. In this study, general, rather than domain-specific measures were used. As the [https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_2333-1 multidimensional theory of self-concept] suggests, more specific self-concept branches are more closely related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2; Marsh et al., 2019). Accordingly, future research should incorporate domain-specific measures of self-concept and fear of failure to illustrate their direct influence on self-handicapping and task motivation.[[File:Multidimensional model of self-concept diagram.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Marsh et al., 2019).|center]]Self-handicapping demonstrates that motivation is not always directed towards achieving valued outcomes. Protecting self-worth can become more important than goal engagement. To illustrate the behavioural effects of self-handicapping, Rhodewalt and Fairfield (1991) found that participants who scored highly on a measure of self-handicapping tendency and reported intentions to withhold effort in a test subsequently performed worse than others. This reflects the influence of self-concept on motivation; preserving one’s self-concept undermines motivation to succeed due to the threat of failure and what it means for one’s self concept. As Rogers (1959) and Oyserman (2015) suggest people are motivated to pursue identity-congruent goals, self-handicapping highlights a potential downside of identity-relevant goals. When success becomes central to the self, individuals become motivated to protect their self-concept rather than maximise performance. 

Repeatedly self-handicapping as motivated by threats to the self-concept, may further threaten self-concept (Schwinger et al., 2022). Recurrent self-handicapping may result in patterns of underperformance which may become incorporated into one's self-concept. This is consistent with reciprocal models of self-concept development, wherein self-concept-motivated behaviours can form patterns which circularly shape self-concept; these will be explored later in this chapter. 

Self-concept is an important guiding system for behaviour. Thus, self-deception through self-defensive strategies can create a dysfunctional self-concept which can have detrimental effects on emotional wellbeing and behaviour motivation. Together, this research suggests self-concept can act both as a motivational resource, and motivational vulnerability. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Reduce self-threat'''
As illustrated by self-handicapping, holding success as a contingency for self-worth can be damaging (Lawrence &amp; Gonzales, 2022; Showers et al., 2015). Thus, interventions can improve wellbeing by deemphasising the extent self-worth depends on outcomes. Promoting self-compassion, diverse positive self-concept domains, self-concept flexibility, and growth-oriented interpretations of failure may therefore improve both wellbeing and motivation.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== How does motivation influence self-concept? ==
The research and theories have thus far detailed how self-concept directs and motivates behaviour. The following section explores how, and whether, this relationship works in reverse.  

=== Self-determination theory: How internalising motivation shapes self-concept ===

'''[[Self-determination theory]]''' proposes there are different types of motivation, influenced by three innate needs, competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). Understanding the temporal progression of these needs and motivation types can provide insight into how motivational processes influence self-concept.  

Ryan and Deci (2020) suggest behavioural regulation exists on a continuum of self-determination, ranging from externally to increasingly internally regulated behaviour. This includes external, introjected, identified, integrated, and intrinsic regulation. Intrinsic motivation refers to autonomous behaviours completed for enjoyment (see Table 2). Extrinsic motivation is the drive to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment (Morris et al., 2022). How self-determined one's motivations are depends on the extent to which one has internalised the values, beliefs and perceptions of the behaviour into their self-concept. Meeting the needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness supports motivations to become progressively internalised, and behaviour increasingly self-endorsed (Chiu, 2023). This illustrates how self-concept and motivation reciprocally form one another. The degree to which one identifies with a behaviour shapes their motivation to engage with the behaviour; when motivational needs are met, motivated behaviours and psychological processes shape the self-concept. This internalisation process helps explain how Ash came to identify as a swimmer (see Table 2, Van den Broeck et al., 2021).  

'''Table 2'''

Applying Self-Determination Theory to Ash's Motivation and Self-Concept Development.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Type of motivation 
!Ash's circumstances  
!Mechanism 
|-
|External regulation 
|Ash received a lollipop after swimming lessons.  
|Non-self-determined drive.  
|-
|Introjected regulation 
|Ash wants her parents to think she is dedicated to swimming. 
|Partially internalised extrinsic motivation, low self-determination.  
|-
|Identified regulation 
|Swimming becomes important to Ash as she starts feeling like a good swimmer (competence) and drives herself to training (autonomy).  
|More internalised and self-determined. 
|-
|Integrated regulation 
|Ash starts to identify as a swimmer and with her swim team (relatedness).  
|Fully integrated into self-concept. Highly self-determined but performed for valued outcome not enjoyment. 
|-
|Intrinsic motivation 
|After the swimming competition, Ash continues swimming for the joy of it.  
|Fully autonomous motivation for enjoyment. 
|}
Chiu (2023) provided compelling evidence for how motivation shapes self-concept within the context of self-determination theory. In this study, 342 Hong Kong high school students completed STEM activities taught using a standard teaching approach or a self-determination theory teaching method, focusing on supporting needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Self-report measures of perceived teacher support, STEM identity and STEM interest reflected that the needs-supporting teaching approach increased students' autonomy, competence and relatedness. This resulted in increased STEM identity and interest. This supports the developmental pathway of self-determination theory proposed whereby fulfilling core psychological needs promotes more autonomous motivation and thus develops one's identity. 

Further supporting this relationship, Yip et al.'s (2024) longitudinal study of 236 anti-poverty activists who completed self-reported social attitudes and personality measures at two timepoints found that increases in self-determined motivations positively correlated with group identification. However, non-self-determined motivations, such as external regulation, did not correlate with group identification. This suggests that self-determined motivation facilitates the incorporation of behaviour and group membership into one's self-concept.  

Together, self-determination theory suggests self-concepts develop as values and behaviours are progressively internalised. Ash was not initially motivated because she identified as a swimmer. Her repeated engagement in swimming gradually transformed swimming into part of her identity. This demonstrates that motivation can be a mechanism through which self-concept develops and is not simply a motivating force. This indicates self-concept and motivation are inherently intertwined.  

=== The reciprocal effects model: The cyclical process of motivation and self-concept development ===

The '''reciprocal effects model''' proposes that self-concept and achievement reinforce one another over time (Marsh et al., 2018). Individuals with stronger self-concepts tend to achieve more highly, while achievement experiences subsequently shape self-concept. Motivation plays an important role in this process, by influencing how individuals behave toward achievement experiences. There is a growing body of research investigating this model. For example, Sewasew et al.'s (2018) longitudinal study with 2,342 German high schoolers demonstrated mathematics self-concept was positively correlated with mathematics achievement. The effect of achievement on self-concept was moderated by motivational constructs of goal approach theory (Vandewalle et al., 2019). Their study highlighted a mutually dependent relationship between academic self-concept and achievement, each mediated by motivation. 

However, Garn and Shen's (2015) longitudinal study of 329 participants found motivational needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) posited by self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2022) did not predict physical self-concept at follow ups. Physical self-concept was only supported as an antecedent to exercise motivation. This result conflicts the reciprocal effects model and may be explained by the timeframe of the study. An explanation for why no reciprocal effect was identified here when they were in Sewasew et al.'s (2018) study of mathematical self-concept is that reciprocal effects may be domain specific. The multidimensional model suggests academic and physical self-concepts function independently, meaning findings from one domain may not generalise to another. 

Similarly, Sorjonen et al. (2024) reanalysed meta-analytic results (Wu et al., 2021) which had provided evidence for the reciprocal effects model. Sorjonen et al. (2024) found that employing different statistical models allowed results to both support and refute the finding that motivation measured by achievement influenced self-concept. Hübner et al. (2023) support for the reciprocal effects model was also inconsistent between statistical models. This may indicate a spurious correlation that undermines the credibility of the reciprocal effects model. 

Taken together, these findings suggest that achievement can shape self-concept, but the strength and direction of this relationship may depend on the domain being examined and the methodological approach used. Although the reciprocal effects model remains influential, current evidence indicates that the relationship between motivation, achievement, and self-concept is more complex than originally proposed. 

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Ash wakes up at 4:00 a.m. each day to train because being a swimmer is a central part of her identity. According to the chapter, what best explains Ash's motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Motivation is determined primarily by physical ability.
+Self-concept acts as an internal compass that guides goals and behaviour.
-Motivation is caused only by external rewards and punishment.
-Self-concept remains fixed and has little influence on actions.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}'''Intervention application: Foster domain-specific self-concept'''
The multidimensional model (Marsh et al., 2019) suggests behaviour and outcomes are more closely linked to specific domains of self-concept than general self-concepts (Seaton et al., 2014; Sewasew et al., 2018). Therefore, motivational self-concept interventions should target specific behaviours and identities, not global self-concept. 

However, it is important for interventions to foster ''accurate'', positive self-concepts for specific domains. As Vu et al. (2024) note, only enhancing self-concept may reduce learning effort and thus negatively impact achievement, consequently impacting self-concept. Similarly, findings challenging the reciprocal effects model indicate that self-concept interventions should be combined with genuine opportunities for achievement (Sewasew et al., 2018; Sorjonen et al., 2024). 

This means interventions should focus on developing accurate positive beliefs about subject-specific capabilities, through achievement opportunities, rather than broadly encouraging feeling good about oneself.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
Self-concept is one's internal perception of oneself. Self-concept acts as a guiding compass that motivates and directs behaviours through processes of congruence, perceived self-competence, and responses to failure. While self-concept can help individuals make sense of and strive toward goals (Oyserman, 2024; Rogers, 1959) evaluations of competence (Vandewalle et al., 2019) and contingencies of self-worth (Showers et al., 2015) can undermine motivation. 

Motivation and subsequent behaviours also form self-concept through internalisation processes when psychological needs are met, as proposed by the self-determination theory (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). However, inconsistent support for the reciprocal effects model (Garn &amp; Shen, 2015; Sewasew et al., 2018) emphasises that motivation may not have as great a role in shaping self-concept as once thought, underscoring the complexity of these processes. 

Nevertheless, these processes inform approaches to motivation-improving interventions. Effective interventions are unlikely to only target behaviour. Rather, interventions that shape how individuals understand themselves may produce more sustainable and high quality motivation by influencing the self-concepts that guide behaviour. 

With self-concept and motivation inherently linked, who one believes they are shapes the goals they pursue, while motivations, behaviours, and experiences continually reshape who one becomes. 

== See also ==
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
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== External links ==
* [https://rickhanson.com/being-well-podcast-self-concept-the-secret-to-changing-who-you-are/ Being well podcast: Self-concept: The secret to changing WHO you are] (Being Well Podcast)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nck7lP-6C2g Unlocking success: The power of self-efficacy and self-concept]  (TEDx Talks)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
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  <page>
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      <text bytes="5296" sha1="tc1ywtajpcz7jftlkhb5vhv5cva0tm6" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, my name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/pepper-white/ Pepper]. I am a third-year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am passionate about preventative mental health care and supporting those in need. This passion motivates me in my studies and at work.  

=== Work experience ===
* '''Mental Health Educator''' with [https://mieact.org.au/ Mental Illness Education ACT]. In this role,  I facilitate discussions about [[Stress (psychological)|stress]], [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/depression?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21934835275&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADuibRbKbycJc05RErZ8UMCld1aGB&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwkOvTBhDgARIsAKUNyRuK4CGO5WdRCpr1RDshuiDIlyi_ZwRe8ZFfvAygSGrvK0TbjFm7VtYaAkf8EALw_wcB depression], and [[wikipedia:Help-seeking|help-seeking]] with ACT school students. 

* '''Student Advocate''' in the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home/support/student-advocacy-and-src/student-advocacy.html Student Advocacy Office] at the University of Canberra. In this role, I help my peer university students navigate university policies and procedures. 

=== Hobbies ===
* [[wikipedia:Oil_painting|Oil painting]]
* Figure drawing
* Running
* Playing water polo with the [https://www.revolutionise.com.au/dragonswp/home/ Gungahlin Dragons Water Polo Club]
* Travelling

== Book chapter ==
The book chapter I am writing is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation|Self-concept and motivation]]. The chapter navigates the question &quot;How does self-concept relate to motivation?&quot; I chose this topic to explore due to my fascination with how the perception of oneself can influence one's behaviour.

== Social contributions ==

# I engaged with conversations in a [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=804001 discussion post] on Canvas about topics of interest within motivation and emotion. My goal with this post was to take inititative by being an early contributor to help build a sense of comfort and normality amongst the group. I also hope by posting some topics of interest, others may feel inspired by these focus areas, thus helping them choose their book chapter topic. 
# In familiarising myself with Wikiversity, I read the Spirituality and resilience 2025 book chapter. I noticed the writing required edits for readability, so I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSpirituality_and_resilience&amp;diff=2824208&amp;oldid=2774009 edited the first two paragraphs] of the overview. I fixed spelling, grammar, and wording issues. This is an important fix to help capture the reader’s attention and demonstrate credibility when the audience begins reading. 
# I went through the topics others have chosen and the topic “Empathy and jury decision-making&quot; caught my attention. I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_and_jury_decision-making#Exploring_empathy_within_similar_contexts commented] on this book chapter with some additional ideas from my own passion about researching empathy to support this students’ topic development.
# To better illustrate the multidimensional model of self-concept Marsh et al. (1992), which I refer to in my book chapter, I [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AMultidimensional_model_of_self-concept_diagram.png&amp;diff=1265404333&amp;oldid=1265404322 created a diagram and uploaded it to Wikimedia].
# I looked through the book chapter &quot;Empathy and jury decision-making&quot; and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_and_jury_decision-making&amp;diff=2826959&amp;oldid=2824982 made edits] to the ordering of citations within a bracket in the conclusion to ensure they were alphabetical.
# I read the book chapter &quot;Falling in love&quot; and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FFalling_in_love#Interesting_theories_to_incorporate suggested a few theories and angles to explore] within this fascinating topic.
# I read the book chapter &quot;Charismatic leadership and follower motivation&quot; and [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Charismatic leadership and follower motivation#Interesting real-life case study to consider incorporating|suggested exploring the Jonestown cult]] as a real life case study to give insight into the extreme side of charismatic leadership and follower motivation.
# To connect with others also writing 'self-' related chapters, I read the book chapter &quot;Possible selves and goal pursuit&quot;. I identified areas which may require more research and [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Possible selves and goal pursuit#c-U3253363-20260909032900-Jshottt-20260827141800|posted on their discussion forum]] some of the research I have been using which could be relevant to their chapter.
# I reviewed the book chapter &quot;Love styles and relationship satisfaction&quot; and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FLove_styles_and_relationship_satisfaction&amp;diff=2832497&amp;oldid=2759229 made stylistic and grammatical edits throughout,] in particular I fixed capitalisation to sentence casing in headings and fixed the broken Wiki links.</text>
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      <text bytes="17721" sha1="tfgddz2j0wcjmqhc90p92n5xxnal61c" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Apocalyptic fear:&lt;br&gt;What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}}
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==Overview==
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[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural disasters are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. 

...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (Wikipedia) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], (Wikipedia) a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

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'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (apocalyptic fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, existential fear). The phenomenon is the fear of an event of great destruction often resulting in the end of the world (Fetterman, 2019). 
* Apocalyptic Fear is primarily observable in cultural sub-groups known as 'Doomsday peppers. Preppers are people who practice the anticipation of and adapting to impending conditions of calamity (Garret, B. 2020) {{ic|Use APA style for citations (e.g., no author initial)}}. 
* There are several psychological theories that underpin apocalyptic fear and its consequences. Garret (2020) explains that the inability for peppers to know which disaster is going to strike, coupled with the perceived inevitability of a catastrophe has effects of dread which create the prepping behaviour. 
* Is prepping from apocalyptic in itself a bad symptom in need of management? This chapter will review consequences of apocalyptic fear including prepping, maladaptive behaviours, out-group hate, and [[Antisocial behavior|anti-social behaviour.]] We will also examine the reciprocal influences of apocalyptic thinking on culture and politics. 
* Finally, the chapter will explore strategies to manage apocalyptic fear including psychotherapies and more practical remedies such as media literacy training and education. 

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'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
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==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Will remove: Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections. {{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}
* In the literature, Apocalyptic Fear is also referred to as 'Apocalyptic Thinking', 'End of world Beliefs', 'Catastrophic Thinking' and 'Doomsday Thinking'. 
* Whilst Apocalyptic Fear is not a  mental health diagnosis. However, it is apparent that those who experience these thought patters are associated with diagnosis and experiences of other mental health related struggles, particularly anxiety (Fetterman, 2019). 

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation suggests that apocalyptic fear is an evolutionary adaptive response to a perceived threat (Turner and Walsmley, 2020). Apocalyptic thinking is an innate response when a threat is detected and survival behaviour is motivated. 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinistic worldviews explain that apocalyptic fear is underpinned through competition between humans and survival of the fittest thinking. Finding from Fetterman (2019) indicate that those who engage in post-apocalyptic survival mindset, are also high in the social dominance orientation traits. 
* Terror Management Theory explains that apocalyptic fear is a symptom of mortality awareness (Stieger et al., 2023). When an individual perceives the salience of mortality, their existential anxiety is heightened. Apocalyptic fear and prepping behaviour is an outcome of the individual trying to manage their existential dread.
* Theory of Planned Behaviour suggests that the attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control contribute to the intention and subsequently behaviour of prepping. An individuals apocalyptic fear, informed by these domains is turned into action (Fetterman, 2019).

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalists more likely to hold apocalyptic views.
* Those who believe in higher god or higher being are more prone to prepping beliefs and behaviours. lower agreeableness, openness, extraversion and humility, high on neuroticism (Fetterman, 2019).
* High on Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), competitiveness and selfishness low on agreeableness (John &amp; Srivastava, 1999).

=== What are environmental triggers of Apocalyptic Fear? ===

* Reflection of catastrophe's in pop culture. It has been argued that the presence of apocalyptic themes in media is a tangible reflection (project test) of personality (Fetterman, 2019)
* Post COVID-19 anxiety was found to be a motivator of prepping behaviour in a study of 126 self-identified doomsday peppers. Other motivators included fear about security in sociopoltiical landscape and person crises. The online prepper communities demonstrated 4 themes: social learning of prepping behaviour online, within-group differences in personal views, sense of community, and lack of engagement (Marshe, 2025).
* War and political unrest. Mass broadcasting and accessibility to distressing media around the world.

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Case Study Continued. 

This aim of this feature box is to continue the story of Evan who has watched the Apocalyptic movie to put into action how Apocalyptic Fear can develop through cognition/psychology and who is susceptible. The case study will include more background on Evan's sociocultural background, political/religious beliefs etc. Evan's demographics will align with the findings of the literature identified in my preliminary view. Furthermore, the case study will provide insight into Evan's internal thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes. Once again, this will align with the literature where his personality traits and anxious rumination suggests that he is more susceptible to apocalyptic fear. I also want this part of the case study to demonstrate how a piece of media can influence the internal thinking patterns, leading to apocalyptic fear
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&lt;quiz&gt;
{According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable.
- The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment.
- Evans survival instincts kicked in.
- Evan believes the film is predicting the future.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

&lt;quiz&gt;
{What are all of the triggers that may have initiated Evan's Apocalyptic Fear?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ The movie
+ Engaging in reddit threads about end-of-world conspiracy theories
+ Media reporting on the Ukraine War
+ Covid-19 Lockdown
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Prepping behaviour. Prepping is the management of stockpiled household items in anticipation of market disruption (Nair, 2023). When people perceive their lives as &quot;not going well,&quot; prepping increases to regain feelings of control.
* Generate feelings of distrust and competition for finite resources. Daily thoughts of death and cynicism. Prepping behaviour to gain control of an uncontrollable, inevitable conclusion (Fetterman, 2019). 
* Higher prepping correlates with high neuroticism, daily thoughts of death, high levels of anxiety and pessimistic future thinking. Apocalyptic fear reinforces maladaptive coping like catastrophising, and conspiracy thinking. 

=== Society and Culture ===

*Reinforcement of outgroup hate leading to acceptive and expression of political violence (Piazza, 2025). Intergroup threat theory suggests that the threat posed by apocalyptic thinking increases in-group cohesion and outgroup hostility. 

=== Politics ===

* Some scholars argue that the apocalypse should not play a role in politics at all (Davidson, 2024).
* Used as a political tool in political movements to advance causes. e.g. climate activists. (Davidson, 2024). 
* Piazza (2025) study suggests that there is a correlational relationship between political violence and apocalypticism. It is estimated that 70% of the support for political violence by Christian nationalists is due to apocalyptic thinking.

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Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world

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==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
One may question whether behaviours associated with Apocalyptic Fear need to be managed. Does it actually need to be treated or managed? Prepping behaviour as a result of Apocalyptic Anxiety is not inherently 'bad'. However, it can become maladaptive. It should be noted that a change in this phenomenon can only occur once the individual innately want to commit to the change. Idea: Talk to behaviour change models.  

=== Strategies ===

*Cognitive restructuring to challenge thought patterns that reinforce catastrophic predictions and exaggeration of non-existent threats. 
*A 2022 Study by Sabzevari demonstrated that existential therapy is a tool to reduce anxiety related to COVID-19 and death. This type of therapy helps individuals develop sincere and real relationships with life and death. Describe and critique the therapy.
*Acceptance &amp; Commitment therapy. Guthrie (2022) studied how acceptance and commitment therapy can support individuals coping with climate-related apocalyptic fear. Describe and critique the therapy. 
*Strengthening social cohesion and community resilience.

=== Media Literacy ===

* Media hygiene. Reduce exposure to sensationalist apocalyptic content (Menzies &amp; Menzies, 2024).
* Importance of sharing of accurate information.
* Limiting antisocial media use. 

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Final part of case study. Going to explain maladaptive symptoms and suggestions that his friend, Ricki, has made to help him combat his apocalyptic fear. This may include activities that increase social cohesion, media hygiene, and education. 

Case study will ask audience to reflect on what they would suggest Evan does to manage his apocalyptic fear.

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==Conclusion==
* Apocalyptic fear is common and emerges from evolutionary instincts, existential concerns, personality traits, and especially environmental triggers. 
* It has meaningful consequences that impact individuals, their mental health and coping mechanisms, societies social cohesion and polarisation, and political violence. 
* Psychological science provides effective tools for managing apocalyptic thinking patterns. Science not only helps us understand how apocalyptic fear develops, but provides strategies and therapies to combat it. Existential therapies, acceptance therapy, and increased media education and literacy helps people manage in health ways.
* Reducing apocalyptic fear requires both internal straggles of change (cognitive, emotional, and existential) and external strategies (accurate information, social connect, and media hygiene).

{{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE
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{{tip|Suggestions for this section: LEAVING THIS SECTION FOR FUTURE REFERENCE
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==See also==
{{expand}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

{{Hanging indent|1=

Adkins, J., Djupe, P. A., &amp; Neiheisel, J. R. (2023). Preparedness Behavior and the apocalypse: religion and politics in the post 2020 election era. Politics and Religion, 16(4), 585–604. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/politics-and-religion/article/preparedness-behavior-and-the-apocalypse-religion-and-politics-in-the-post-2020-election-era/39FA605571043F7C03281B5B15C2C9E4

Davison, J. (2025). The Apocalypse from Below: The Dangerous Idea of the End of the World, the Politics of the Oppressed, and Anti-Anti-Apocalypticism. American Political Science Review, 119(1), 479–491. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/apocalypse-from-below-the-dangerous-idea-of-the-end-of-the-world-the-politics-of-the-oppressed-and-antiantiapocalypticism/054311423D0D7BC9E3B7586C894F0CAB

Fetterman, A., et al. (2019). On Post-apocalyptic and Doomsday Prepping Beliefs: A New Measure, its Correlates and the Motivation to Prep. European Journal of Personality, 33(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2216

Furse, T. (2022). ‘Let us go out to the Field’: Apocalyptic Thinking in Christian Nationalism. Politics, Religion &amp; Ideology, 23(3), 306–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/21567689.2022.2123802

Garret, B. (2020). Doomsday preppers and the architecture of dread. Geoforum, 127(1), 401-411. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7151311/

Guthrie, D. (2023). How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Eco-Apocalypse: An Existential Approach to Accepting Eco-Anxiety. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(1), 210-223. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/17456916221093613

Menzies, R. &amp; Menzies, R. (2024). Existential therapies and the extended evolutionary meta-model: Turning existential philosophy into process-based therapy. Journal of Contextual Behaviour Science, 34(1). https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212144724001200

Nair, T. (2023). Doomsday Prepping: Reactionary Behaviour or Inherited Instinct? Seattle Anxiety. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychiatrist/2023/1/12/doomsday-prepping-reactionary-behavior-or-inherited-instinct

Parsons, S. (2022). Terror Management Theory. EBSCO.com https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/terror-management-theory

Piazza, J. A. (2026). Christian nationalism, apocalypticism, outgroup hate, and support for violent extremism.Defence and Peace Economics, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2026.2613902

Sabzevari, P. (2022). The Effectiveness of Existential Therapy Intervention on Anxiety Caused by Coronavirus and Death. Clinical Cancer Investigation Journal, 11(1). https://ccij-online.org/article/the-effectiveness-of-existential-therapy-intervention-on-anxiety-caused-by-coronavirus-and-death-ec5qns1rnmgi9ju

Stieger, S. et al. (2023). Examining terror management theory in Ukraine: impact of air-raid alarms and explosions on mental health, somatic symptoms and well-being. Front. Psychiatry, 14(1). https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1244335/full

Strozier, S. (2017). The Apocalyptic Imagination and Fundamentalist Mindset. New England Journal of Public Policy, 29(1). https://scholarworks.umb.edu/nejpp/vol29/iss1/7/

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** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
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==External links==
* [https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20211014-agents-of-doom-who-is-hastening-the-apocalypse-and-why Agents of Doom: Who is creating the apocalypse and why] (Luke Kemp)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idMobTOh0kY Addicted to Apocalypse: Our Psychological Need for the End] (The Living Philosophy)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SKBTrMH7SeI&amp;list=PLivjPDlt6ApT_2pW5HJl9GnMaNgJO6AgK Doomsday Preppers] (National Geographic)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
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[[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A very irritated man]]

; Imagine this ...

You go to work, feeling refreshed after your morning coffee and ready to tackle whatever challenges get thrown your way. Ten minutes after arriving, your boss assigns you a marketing project to work on. Only, there a catch. You have to work on it with your coworker, Tom. The grumpiest person in your workplace. 

Tom always seems to be in a bad mood. It doesn't matter if the sun is shining or if someone brings in afternoon tea for everyone to share. He always has something negative to say. He will criticise someone for making a small typo and yell at another person for accidently jamming the printer. No matter what, he always seems to be a pin drop away from snapping at someone. You may have gone to work in a good mood, but now you're stuck dreading this project. 

Tom might be someone as someone who struggles with irritability. But what is irritability? Why does it happen, and how can we manage it?
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This chapter covers:

* What the concept of irritability{{g}}, the different types of irritability and what makes irritability different than similar concepts such as aggression.
* Social information theory and how the way we process social cues can influence how irritable we feel
* The translational model and some of the neuroscience behind why we might feel irritable. 
* The negative consequences of irritability such as aggression and mental illness.
* How we can manage and reduce irritability through numerous ways such as reducing stress and using emotional regulation skills 

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

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'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in Tutorial 2}}

1. What is irritability?

2. What are some of the different explanations as to why we might become irritable?

3. How can experiencing irritability impact us?

4. What can be done to manage and reduce irritability?
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== What is Irritability? ==

* When you think of irritability, you might think of someone who always seems to be on edge and annoyed. Or maybe you see it as a state where you cannot help but yell at everyone around you. But what is the actual definition of irritability? The answer: we do not know. Different researchers in the field of irritability have all given different definitions to what irritability is. To try and fix this, some researchers conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on something similar to irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions (Saatchi et al., 2023). 
* Briefly mention the link between irritability and young people, and how a lot of the research is predominantly done on young people. Let readers know that for this reason, a lot of the concepts in this chapter focus on young people. 

=== What Irritability is Not: ===

Irritability can sometimes be confused for anger and aggression. However, while similar, they are different concepts. 

Much of the research defining [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|anger]] appears to be conducted in the late 20th century. Smedslund (1993) defined anger as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). 

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson &amp; Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts.  

=== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability: ===

* Irritability can be classified as different types. A study in 2006 found episodic irritability and chronic irritability to be distinguishable concepts in children (Leibenluft et al., 2006). This suggests some people will only be irritable for a certain period of time (e.g. a few hours) while others will feel irritable for potentially years on end. 
* Phasic irritability is the label given to phasic irritability. It is considered to be irritability presenting in outbursts that appear out of proportion for the person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). 
* Tonic irritability is the label given to chronic irritability. It is considered to be 'irritability manifest as [a] chronically angry mood' (Leibenluft, 2017).  

=== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability: ===

* The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience low to high, or normal to pathological levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023)
* Not getting enough sleep may increase how irritable you feel (Whiting et al., 2023). This is an example of a normative response. 
* Irritability is likely considered abnormal or pathological when it interferes with your life. For example, if you find yourself frequently cranky with friends which makes it hard to maintain friendships. 

== Why do we get Irritable? ==

* There are different perspectives researchers can take when explaining the reasons why we get irritable. Some will look at the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a biological level. Others might turn to the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Below are just a couple of the many theories researchers have created to describe what might make us irritable.
* Potentially might include another theory/approach here such as irritability as a trait or frustration theory 

=== Social Information Processing Theory ===

* Social information processing theory refers to how the way you process social cues may impact on how well you handle a social situation (Dodge &amp; Crick, 1990)
* There is a five step sequence on how we process social cues (Dodge &amp; Crick, 1990)
*# Encode what is relevant from the present cues
*# Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it
*# Access one or multiple responses from your memory
*# Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them
*# Make the response
* Certain ways of processing social cues may result in irritability
** One study found an association between irritability and rating ambiguous face stimuli as having an angry emotional expression (Deveney et al., 2019)

=== Translational Model ===
*The Translational Model is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience irritability (Brotman et al., 2017). This model specifically focuses on abnormal irritability, In simple words, this means it is '''not''' talking about the teenager who snaps at their parents after only getting four hours of sleep. It is talking about the children and teenagers who experience irritability to the extent where it starts to cause significant problems in their lives.  
*Irritability in youths is a response to one of the following (Brotman et al., 2017): 
**Being interrupted when trying to achieve a goal (see Frustration theory)  
**Being presented with a potential threat 
*There may be some abnormalities in the brain when processing rewards (Brotman et al., 2017). For example, youths with abnormal irritability might experience a stronger frustration response to not getting a rewards compared with youths who do not struggle with irritability.  
*(Note to self: Maybe consider putting in the figure of the model that was in the journal article?) 

== The Bad Side of Irritability ==

* What are the consequences of being irritable? How can it negatively impact us? Maybe you find yourself snapping at people more often, similar to Tom. Or, maybe you hate the feeling of irritability and feeling it results in a bad day. 

=== Aggression ===

* Discuss the frustration-aggression theory or, alternatively, frustration theory (Amsel, 1992) (as frustration theory seems to be talked about more in terms of irritability in the literature. Still need to check if it links to aggression though). Talk about how being interrupted in the pursuit of a goal may result in frustration and therefore potentially aggression
** Also discuss the link between frustration and irritability, to link irritability to aggression
*Discuss research directly relating irritability to aggression, such as the study conducted by (Perhamus et al., 2024) 
*Why aggression is a negative consequence of irritability. Briefly discuss how aggression might negatively impact relationship with others etc. 

=== Mental Disorders ===

* Research seems to talk a lot about the connection between [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]] and irritability
* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder might represent the severe end of irritability 
* Talk about the whole chicken and egg debate. What came first, the irritability or the mental disorder? Did being high in trait irritability increase your risk of meeting criteria for a mental disorder? Or, did you only start feeling irritable when you met criteria for the mental disorder?
** Talk about mood disorders potentially here as an example of feeling irritable because of the mental disorder. 

=== Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? ===

* Maybe talk about potential positives of irritability? However there doesn't seem to be much research on this. Therefore maybe pose this question to the reader. Also include some research on positives of anger. While not the same concept, it may relate.

== How to Manage Irritability ==

* Now that we know what some of the negative impacts of irritability might be, you might want some ways or methods to manage it. Some of these methods are simple things you can easily implement into your daily life, such as making sure you are getting enough sleep. Others might involved a visit to a therapist to help work through some strategies to reduce the amount of irritability you experience. 

=== Take Care of Your Mind and Body ===
[[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|Sometimes not getting enough sleep may contribute to feeling irritable]]

* Irritability can be associated with not getting enough sleep (Whiting et al., 2023), therefore, if you get enough sleep it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with not eating enough food (Swami et al., 2022), therefore, if you eat enough food it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
* Irritability can be associated with stress (Harrison et al., 2025), therefore if you avoid stressful situations it will potentially reduce the chance you will feel irritable.
=== Emotion Regulation: ===

* Discuss Gross's emotion regulation theory and how it potentially can be applied to regulating irritability (Gross, 1998, as cited in Gross, 2015)
* Talk about studies linking irritability and emotion regulation together 
* Discuss the link between irritability and self-regulatory control processes (Urben et al., 2025) 

=== Therapeutic Interventions ===

* For people with severe or pathological irritability, sometimes intervention in the form of therapy can be helpful
* Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) appears to be the main therapy with research behind it to treat irritability
** Exposure techniques may be helpful, with one study find cognitive behavioural therapy to be helpful in reducing irritability for young people by exposing participants to cues that trigger irritability (Naim et al., 2024)
** A focus on emotional regulation skills may also be helpful, with an indirect link between improving emotional regulation skills through CBT and a reduction in irritability found in one study (Derella et al., 2019)

; Quiz
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Tonic irritability refer to having brief periods of time where you have frequent angry outbursts:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Getting enough sleep
- Watching a sci-fi TV show
- Filling in your tax return &lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where you have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger that are difficult to manage
* There are many different reasons or causes behind why we might feel irritable, such as how we interpret a social situation or physiological processes happening in the brain
* Irritability can at times have a negative impact on our lives, with it being associated with aggression and mental disorders
* There are numerous way to manage irritability, such as taking care of your body, using emotional regulation skills or seek out therapeutic support. 

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Algeria|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) {{ic|Check and correct - doesn't go to a book chapter}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:

{{Hanging indent|1=

Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., &amp; Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. ''International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research'', ''32''(S1), e1988. https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1988

Amsel, A. (1992). Frustration theory: Many years later. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''112''(3), 396–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.396

Anderson, C. A., &amp; Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human Aggression. ''Annual Review of Psychology'', ''53'', 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135231

Brotman, M. A., Kircanski, K., Stringaris, A., Pine, D. S., &amp; Leibenluft, E. (2017). Irritability in Youths: A Translational Model. ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', ''174''(6), 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16070839

Derella, O. J., Johnston, O. G., Loeber, R., &amp; Burke, J. D. (2019). CBT-Enhanced Emotion Regulation as a Mechanism of Improvement for Childhood Irritability. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''48''(sup1), S146–S154. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1270832

Deveney, C. M., Stoddard, J., Evans, R. L., Chavez, G., Harney, M., &amp; Wulff, R. A. (2019). On defining irritability and its relationship to affective traits and social interpretations. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 144, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.031

Dodge, K. A., &amp; Crick, N. R. (1990). Social Information-Processing Bases of Aggressive Behavior in Children. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''16''(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167290161002

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''26''(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Harrison, T. J., Silver, J., Calentino, A. E., Mackin, D. M., Finsaas, M. C., Carlson, G., Davila, J., Olino, T. M., &amp; Klein, D. N. (2025). Irritability and stress: Prospective, bidirectional relationships in adolescence. ''Journal of Affective Disorders'', ''372'', 598–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.051

Leibenluft, E. (2017). Pediatric Irritability: A Systems Neuroscience Approach. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''21''(4), 277–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.02.002

Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., &amp; Pine, D. S. (2006). Chronic Versus Episodic Irritability in Youth: ACommunity-Based, Longitudinal Study of Clinical and Diagnostic Associations. ''Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology'', ''16''(4), 456–466. https://doi.org/10.1089/cap.2006.16.456

Naim, R., Dombek, K., German, R. E., Haller, S. P., Kircanski, K., &amp; Brotman, M. A. (2024). An Exposure-Based Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Severe Irritability: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy. ''Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology'', ''53''(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2264385

Perhamus, G. R., Ostrov, J. M., &amp; Murray-Close, D. (2024). Aggression and Irritability in Middle Childhood: Between- and Within-Person Associations. 'Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology', ''53''(2), 184–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2272941

Saatchi, B., Olshansky, E. F., &amp; Fortier, M. A. (2023). Irritability: A concept analysis. ''International Journal of Mental Health Nursing'', ''32''(5), 1193–1210. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.13140

Smedslund, J. (1993). How Shall the Concept of Anger be Defined? ''Theory &amp; Psychology'', ''3''(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354393031001

Swami, V., Hochstöger, S., Kargl, E., &amp; Stieger, S. (2022). Hangry in the field: An experience sampling study on the impact of hunger on anger, irritability, and affect. ''PLoS ONE'', ''17''(7), e0269629. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269629

Urben, S., Ochoa Williams, A., Ben Jemia, C., Rosselet Amoussou, J., Machado Lazaro, S., Giovannini, J., Abi Kheir, M., Kaess, M., Plessen, K. J., &amp; Mürner-Lavanchy, I. (2025). Understanding irritability through the lens of self-regulatory control processes in children and adolescents: a systematic review. 'European Child &amp; Adolescent Psychiatry', '34'(5), 1497–1509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-024-02591-8

Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., &amp; Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Exhausted smartphone user.JPG|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. An emotionally exhausted Aelin at the end of the work day]]

; Scenario

Aelin, a 23-year-old social worker employed at headspace, works with approximately 20 clients each week. Many of these clients have experienced rough living conditions.

During Aelin's first six months in the role, they feel highly motivated and are excited about helping people. They are an excellent active listener, and can easily remember details about their clients' lives. During their sessions, Aelin recognises when a client is distressed and adjusts their body language to warm and understanding.

As Aelin works in the role for longer, their caseload increases, and they are exposed to clients with increasing complexity and past traumas. Aelin wants to provide the best possible outcome for all of their clients, and begins to take their work home with them in the evenings, but finds it starts creeping into their weekends as well. After several months of working this way, Aelin begins to notice they feel exhausted every morning - even before the workday begins.

After a few months of working this way, Aelin notices a change in how they start responding to people, including clients. Instead of feeling engaged and actively listening, they feel detached and find their thoughts feeling more frustrated than empathetic. After finishing the work day, Aelin is drained and has no energy for friends or family. With increasing irritability, Aelin begins to worry that they won't be able to continue working as a social-worker.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Aelin is experiencing '''emotional exhaustion''' from a sustained empathic response. 

Due to the nature of Aelin's work, they are constantly engaged in an empathic response. Empathic responses require cognitive and physical resources to sustain. Because Aelin is taking their work home and not resting on weekends, they do not have a chance to rest. It is important for Aelin to recognise what is happening and why. Not actioning the problem has led to empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion is one of the key aspects of burnout, a long-term condition of existing in a constant state of high stress. 

Psychological science can support Aelin in recognising and mapping the symptoms they are experiencing, understand coping strategies to minimise the current and future effects to improve their wellbeing. Understanding the symptoms will also support their role as a social worker, providing more tools for the people they support on a day-to-day basis.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* Why do we become emotionally exhausted?
* What is the relationship between empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion?
* What role does emotional labor play in emotional exhaustion?
* What can we {{ic|Use 3rd person perspetive for focus questions}} do if we're experiencing emotional exhaustion?
* How can we use our understanding of emotional labor and empathy fatigue to reduce the effects of emotional exhaustion?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Emotional Exhaustion ==
General introduction/definition of emotional exhaustion
* Talk about stress and its role in emotional exhaustion
* How would you recognise that someone is emotionally exhausted (symptoms) 
** Emotional exhaustion as a symptom of burnout (De Beer et al., 2024) 
** Introduce theories of emotional exhaustion

=== Conservation of resources stress model   ===

* Psychological stress occurs when individuals lose valued resources (Halbesleben et al., 2014; Hobfoll, 1989)
** Discuss what resources are (e.g. social relationships)
** Discuss how losing resources leads to increased vulnerability to stress
** discuss gain and loss spirals

=== Job Demands-Resources model ===

* Talk about Job demands and job resources (Demerouti et al., 2001)
** Why do we actually feel exhausted after a sustained empathic response?
** Job demands require sustained physical or psychological effort
*** Empathic response can be a job demand
** Job resources support achieving work goals or reduce job demands
* Discuss how the model looks at prolonged job demands depleting energy leading to exhaustion/burnout (Schaufeli, 2017)
* Discuss how the model treats job resources as a mediating factor for reducing the negative effects of job demands 

== Empathy Fatigue ==

* Before understanding empathy fatigue, define what empathy is (what are the theories behind empathy? Why do we have empathy? What theory am I using)
** Individual ability to imagine or understand another person's feelings and/or emotions (Riess, 2017; Shao et al., 2024)

=== What are the types of empathy? ===

* Affective empathy - emotional reaction to someone else's mental state (Shao et al., 2024) 
* Cognitive empathy - understand someone's feelings or emotions (Cui et al., 2022)
* Integrating the two - &quot;affective component is the essence of empathy, and the cognitive component is a process through which that essence comes into being&quot; (Bošnjaković &amp; Radionov, 2018) 
** (Author's note: change quote into paraphrasing)

=== What is compassion fatigue? (theories of compassion fatigue) ===

* Distinction between empathy and compassion fatigue
* Compassion fatigue is closely related to Secondary traumatic stress usually found in healthcare professionals (Figley, 2002)
** Compassion fatigue is to Empathy fatigue as emotional exhaustion is to burnout

* Make it clear that Aelin is experiencing Compassion Fatigue vs Empathy fatigue (they are the same but different)

(Author's note: include an update to the scenario here!)

'''Empathy fatigue questions'''. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Surface acting is when the observer actually feels the emotion:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Compassion fatigue and empathy fatigue are synonymous:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional labor as a mediating factor between Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion ==
What is emotional labor (Hochschild, 2012)

=== Types of acting ===
* Surface acting
** This is where emotive dissonance comes into play
** Leads to emotional exhaustion

* Deep acting
** People who 'deep act', as in genuinely change the way they feel (match the feelings they have with the feelings that they need to display) often report positive relationships with emotional labor
Discuss the differences in gender norms and expectations in relationships

=== The mediating effect of emotional labor ===
Surface acting does not mediate the effect (high surface acting leads to emotional exhaustion) whereas the inverse is true for deep acting (Wrobel, 2013)

=== Emotional contagion ===
If space/time permits discuss the role of emotional contagion
* Emotional contagion (Panksepp and Lahvis, 2011)
** emotions can spread (expand, combines empathy and acting)
** “the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize expressions, vocalizations, postures, and movements with those of another person’s and, consequently, to converge emotionally.” (Elaine Hatfield, 1993)

== Strategies for combating Empathy fatigue and emotional fatigue ==

* Talk about emotion regulation (Gross, 1998) and mood regulation strategies as a way to deal with coping (Wrobel, 2013) (Author's note: need more research/references for this section)
* Talk about breaks
** Rest and downtime from not performing emotional labor regenerates
* How do we reduce the amount of emotional labor we're performing (Jeung et al., 2018)
** Communication/boundaries
** Reducing surface acting (allowing ourselves to feel how we actually feel and reduce emotive dissonance)

=== Strategies in the workplace ===
* Discuss types of strategies that are available in the workplace (organisation models)
* SCARF model (Aplin-Houtz, 2025)
** Link back to COR and JDR models e.g. praise could be a job resource vs criticism could be a job demand

==Figures (for reference before final assessment)==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features (for reference before final assessment) ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==

* Summarise what empathy fatigue is, and why people become emotionally exhausted (+ the role of emotional labor)
* Summarise the symptoms and how to recognise them in yourself and someone else
* Emphasise and summarise psychological strategies to support someone going through emotional exhaustion
* Summarise ways to prevent emotional exhaustion from happening
* Overall message is: 
*# What is emotional exhaustion
*# how do you recognise it
*# how do you treat it
*# how do you prevent it

* Link back to the focus questions

==See also==
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2025/Metacognition_and_emotional_regulation&amp;oldid=2756264 Metacognition and emotional regulation] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Conservation_of_resources_theory|Conservation of resources theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Job_demands-resources_model|Job demands-resources model]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

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Bošnjaković, J., &amp; Radionov, T. (2018). Empathy: Concepts, Theories and Neuroscientific Basis. Alcoholism (Zagreb), 54(2), 123–150. https://doi.org/10.20471/de..2018.54.02.04

Cui, F., Huang, X., Jing, Y., Luo, Y., Liu, J., &amp; Gu, R. (2022). How resource sharing resists scarcity: the role of cognitive empathy and its neurobiological mechanisms. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991), 32(23), 5330–5342. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac017

De Beer, L. T., van der Vaart, L., Escaffi-Schwarz, M., De Witte, H., &amp; Schaufeli, W. B. (2024). Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey. European Journal of Psychological Assessment : Official Organ of the European Association of Psychological Assessment, 40(5), 360–375. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000797

Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., &amp; Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499

Figley, C. R. (2002). Compassion fatigue: Psychotherapists’ chronic lack of self care. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(11), 1433–1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10090

Grandey, A. A. (2003). When ‘the show must go on’: surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46(1), 86–96. https://doi.org/10.5465/30040678

Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271

Halbesleben, J. R. B., Neveu, J.-P., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., &amp; Westman, M. (2014). Getting to the “COR”: Understanding the Role of Resources in Conservation of Resources Theory. Journal of Management, 40(5), 1334–1364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314527130

Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., &amp; Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional Contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science : A Journal of the American Psychological Society, 2(3), 96–99. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770953

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. The American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513

Hochschild, A. R. (2012). The managed heart  : commercialization of human feeling (Updated, with a new preface.). University of California Press.

Jeung, D.-Y., Kim, C., &amp; Chang, S.-J. (2018). Emotional Labor and Burnout: A Review of the Literature. Yonsei Medical Journal, 59(2), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2018.59.2.187

Lavelle, J. J., Rupp, D. E., Herda, D. N., Pandey, A., &amp; Lauck, J. R. (2021). Customer Injustice and Employee Performance: Roles of Emotional Exhaustion, Surface Acting, and Emotional Demands–Abilities Fit. Journal of Management, 47(3), Article 0149206319869426. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206319869426

Panksepp, J. B., &amp; Lahvis, G. P. (2011). Rodent empathy and affective neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(9), 1864–1875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.05.013

Riess, H. (2017). The Science of Empathy. Journal of Patient Experience, 4(2), 74–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/2374373517699267

Schaufeli, W. B. (2017). Applying the job demands-resources model: a “how to” guide to measuring and tackling work engagement and burnout. Organizational Dynamics, 46(2), 120–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orgdyn.2017.04.008

Shao, M., Li, L., Li, X., Wei, Z., Wang, J., Hong, M., Liu, X., &amp; Meng, J. (2024). The effect of top-down attention on empathy fatigue. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y. 1991), 34(1), Article bhad441. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhad441

Wharton, A. S. (2009). The Sociology of Emotional Labor. Annual Review of Sociology, 35(1), 147–165. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115944

Wrobel, M. (2013). Can empathy lead to emotional exhaustion in teachers? The mediating role of emotional labor. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 26(4), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1

}}

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==Overview==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Imagine this....'''
[[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children_play_on_outdoor_equipment,_Blaketown_Playcentre,_1987._CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. ]]

A child comes home after a long day at school. Children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors, while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. They may ride bikes, skate, explore nature, do some creative work using natural materials or make up games with other children. Outdoor play does not always have and follow predetermined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again. 
How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being? Does the relationship involve physical activity, autonomy to choose what and how to play, social interaction, experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors?
|}

Outdoor play can involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with the surrounding environment. Recent research does not examine children's emotional well-being as one single outcome. Studies on outdoor play have examined [[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|emotional dysregulation]] (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), [[Evidence-based assessment/Instruments/Positive and Negative Affect Schedule|positive and negative affect]] (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026) {{ic|Move citations into subsequent sections; use this section for a user-friendly overview; provide research review in the main body, not here.}}. These outcomes examine different aspects of children's emotional functioning.

Research has also examined characteristics of outdoor play and conditions surrounding children's participation. Lee et al. (2025) examined both the amount and timing of outdoor play and tested [[wikipedia:Working_memory|working memory]] as a statistical mediator of the  association to emotional dysregulation. The study used a [[wikipedia:Mediation_(statistics)|mediation analysis]] with 325 preschool children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025)  in a [[qualitative study]] examined facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play and identified personal, interacting and environmental factors. The study involved 40 children aged 6 to 12 years.

This chapter will {{ic|Use present tense}} examine how outdoor play and [[wikipedia:Emotional_well-being|emotional well-being]] are represented in recent research, the psychological processes that may be involved, the social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor-play experiences, differences in recent findings, and how families, communities, and schools can support opportunities for outdoor play.

* Outdoor play needs to have a clear definition {{ic|Move this detail into a subsequent section}}. Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happen outdoors. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involves voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as playgrounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Outdoor play and outdoor physical activity  are related but should not be treated as the same construct (Davenport et al.,2025).
* Children's emotional well-being is examined through different outcomes in recent outdoor play research {{ic|Move this detail into a subsequent section}}. It cannot be defined as simply as feeling happy. These includes emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* Recent studies have different findings about outdoor play and children's emotional functioning {{ic|Move this detail into a subsequent section}}. (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a [[wikipedia:Longitudinal_study|longitudinal study]], Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures.
* The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors {{ic|Move this detail into a subsequent section}}. [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[wikipedia:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[wikipedia:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environments  are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025).
* Access to the outdoors is not equal {{ic|Move this detail into a subsequent section}}. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|

;Focus questions

{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

What are outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

How do social and environmental conditions shape  children's outdoor play experiences?

What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

How can families, communities and school support outdoor  play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?
|}

== '''Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being''' ==

* Outdoor play includes different activities and takes place across various outdoor environments. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments. Recent research has examined both children's outdoor play and features of environment where play happens (Dodd et al.,2026; Pereira et al.,2024).
* Outdoor play and physical activity can overlap however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA).
* Children's emotional well-being is measured through different outcomes. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al.,2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al.,2026).

=== '''Outdoor play''' ===
* Outdoor play is defined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free play can be also self-directed, allowing children to freely interact with their environment and have autonomy to make choices over their activities (Biino et al., 2025).
* Outdoor play should not be treated as equivalent to outdoor physical activity. Davenport et al. (2024) examined parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play among 107 preschool children and tested whether associations with physical, [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] and social-emotional developmental indicators were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. Distinguishing these measures are important because research on children's outdoor play is not necessarily measuring the same behaviour as research on the intensity of physical activity.
* Outdoor play environment contains different physical features. Pereira et al. (2024) systematically reviewed 51 articles representing 45 primary studies and examined outdoor play space features including fixed structures, space naturalness, floor markings, loose parts or equipment, available area and combinations of environmental features. Physical activity was the most frequently examined outcome, and heterogeneity between studies limited conclusions about the effects of individual outdoor play features. The findings should not automatically be interpreted as evidence of effects on children's emotional well-being.
* [[w:Affordance|Affordance]] theory provides different perspective of examining relationships between outdoor environments and children's play. Morgenthaler et al. (2024) used the theory of affordances to examine environment play transactions and developed an Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features. The review identified 284 distinct play occupations afforded by different spaces and objects and examined the functional environmental qualities associated with these opportunities. This provides evidence that physical characteristics of outdoor spaces can afford different forms of play. It does not establish that particular environmental affordances cause better emotional well-being.

=== '''Children's emotional well-being''' ===

* Children's emotional well-being is represented through different outcomes in the recent outdoor play research. Studies have examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* Lee et al. (2025) examined emotional dysregulation among 325 preschool children in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play and also examined working memory as a statistical mediator. The mediation findings are considered in the psychological-process section. 
* Ferguson et al. (2025) examined social-emotional competence, including difficulties and prosocial behaviour. This is different from lee et al. (2025) measure of emotional dysregulation.
* Poulos et al. (2026) examined positive and negative affect following recess in an outdoor schoolyard, gymnasium and classroom,  while Dodd et al. (2026) examined trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire''.'' Dodd et al. also defined emotional symptoms and peer problems for internalising symptoms and conduct problems and [[w:Hyperactivity|hyperactivity]] inattention for externalising symptoms. 
* These differences in measurement are significant because different aspects and time frames of children's emotional functioning should not be interpreted as equivalent when findings across the studies are compared.

'''Table:1''' {{ic|Add an APA style table caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Emotional outcomes examined in recent research on outdoor play and children's emotional being
|-
|'''Study'''
|'''Outcome Examined'''
|'''What the outcome represents in the study''' 
|-
|Lee et al. (2025)
|Emotional dysregulation
|Difficulties in emotional regulation; examined in relation to the amount and timing of outdoor play
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Social emotional competence
|Social- emotional difficulties and prosocial behaviour
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Positive and negative affect
|Children's affect following following recess in different settings
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Internalising and externalising symptoms
|Internalising; emotional symptoms and peer problems; externalising; conduct problems and hyperactivity-inattention
|}

As shown in Table 1, the studies examine different aspects and time frames of children's emotional functioning. Affect following recess should not be treated as the same outcome as emotional dysregulation measured over several months or trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood.

{{ic|Add an APA style table caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |'''Key points'''

* Outdoor play and outdoor physical activity are related but are not interchangeable measures. Davenport et al. (2024) examined parent-reported outdoor play and device-measured outdoor play separately from outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity (N=107).
* Outdoor environments provide different opportunities for play. Pereira et al. (2024) examined features including fixed structures, space naturalness, floor markings, loose parts or equipment and available area, while Morgenthaler et al. (2024) used affordance theory to examine how spaces and objects afford different forms of play. These findings concern opportunities for play and should not be treated as evidence that particular environmental features improved emotional well-being.
* Children's emotional well-being is not represented by one common outcome across the recent studies'''.''' Research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* The emotional outcomes also differ in their time frame. Poulos et al. (2026) examined affect following recess, whereas Lee et al. (2025) examined emotional dysregulation over several months and Dodd et al. (2026) examined trajectories of internalising and externalising symptoms across childhood. These outcomes should not be treated as equivalent when findings are compared.

|}

== '''How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?''' ==

* Lee et al. (2025) examined working memory as possible process between outdoor play and emotional regulation. Dodd et al.(2026) discussed cognitive, social and emotional skills development, social interaction, physical activity, connection with the nature, adventurous play as possible measures for association between outdoor play and mental health symptoms.
* Lee et al. (2025) examined 325 preschool children and used meditation analysis  to test whether the timing and amount of outdoor play were related to emotional dysregulation and working memory.
* Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted healthier mental health trajectories into middle childhood. The study used nationally representative longitudinal cohort and suggest possible pathways that includes cognitive, social and emotional skills development, exposure and relation with the nature, physical activity, social interaction and adventurous play.
* These pathways were proposed by Dodd et al.(2025) but not directly tested as mechanisms. The findings of the study do not shows outdoor play causes better emotional well-being. Many of the existing outdoor play research remains observational (De Lannoy et  al., 2023).

=== '''Emotion regulation''' ===

* [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]] regulation provides an understanding of how children manage emotional situations. Gross (2015) describes emotional regulation as a process involving identification, selection and implementation. Identification concerns deciding whether to regulate an emotion, selection concerns selecting regulation strategy and implementation concerns applying chosen response into practice.
* Gross (2015) describes {{ic|Use past tense here}} various forms of emotion regulation like situation selection, situation modification, attention deployment cognitive change and response modulation. During outdoor play a child may experience frustration, conflict, disagreement, uncertainty or changes to their activity. These process provide a psychological framework for understanding how people respond to emotional situations. This model can be applied to these outdoor play situations to consider how children might recognise emotional response, decide how to manage the situation, and act on that decision.
* However, this is an application of Gross (2015) theoretical framework to outdoor play. This study did not examine whether outdoor play influence to children's emotion regulation.

=== '''Working memory and cognitive process''' ===

* Lee et al. (2025) examined [[w:Working_memory|working memory]] as a mediator between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation among 325 preschool children. Outdoor play was examined across three part of the day: wake-up to noon, noon to 6 pm and 6 pm to bedtime.
* The timing of outdoor play was important. More outdoor play between noon and 6 pm was related to lower emotional dysregulation. In contrast, more outdoor play before noon and after 6 pm was related to higher emotional dysregulation (Lee et al. 2025).
* Lee et al (2025) found that more outdoor play from noon to 6 pm was associated with better working memory (b=1.61, p&lt;.05) and better working memory was associated with lower emotional dysregulation (b= -0.08, p&lt; .01). This relation between noon to 6pm outdoor play and emotional dysregulation as no longer statistically significant when working memory was included in the analysis. As a result it is reported as full mediation.
* The findings suggest that working memory can be one cognitive functioning process involved in the association between outdoor play and emotional regulation. However, statistical mediation in an observational study which does not prove that outdoor play caused better working memory or emotional regulation. Lee et al. (2025) called for further research examining both immediate and longer-term effects of outdoor play on working memory and emotion regulation.

{{ic|Add an APA style table caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Key points

* Lee et al. (2025) found that associations between outdoor play and emotional dysregulation differed according to time of day.
* Working memory statistically mediated the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation in Lee et al. (2025).
* Dodd et al. (2026) found that more frequent preschool outdoor play predicted lower odds of non-normative internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|}

== '''Social and environmental influences on outdoor play''' ==

* Outdoor play opportunities are shaped by more than the physical being outdoor space. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) interviewed 40 children aged 6 to 12, with and without disabilities about facilitators and barriers to inclusive outdoor play. The findings were identified personal factor, interacting factors and environmental factors.
* Personal factors included experiencing [[w:Autonomy|autonomy]], and children's feelings of physical and social limitations. Interacting factors included making contact, growing up together, and adopting the ways of playing. Environmental factors included parents, outdoor play environments, communities, and time constrains (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* Opportunities for outdoor play was not experienced in the same way by all children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced more barriers than children with no disability. The challenges were related to making contact with other children, adopting play and the physical play environment.
* Ferguson et al. (2025) examined the association between outdoor play and children's social-emotional competence. In a cross sectional analysis of 2568 children, aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi-ethnic urban cohort found that outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the association was differed across ethnicity, and weekday or weekend outdoor play.
* Ferguson et al. (2025) also examined area deprivation. The relation between outdoor play and social-emotional competence appeared stronger in less deprived area, although the statistical evidence for the differences by deprivation was significantly weak.

=== '''Social relationship and inclusion''' ===

* Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified making contact and growing up together as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Some children described familiarity with other children as an easy way to approach, communication and play together. Making contact could also be a barrier when children approaching to another unfamiliar children or joining in play who were already playing.
* Children also described the need to adopt games so that children with different abilities could participate. School and communities were identified settings where children with and without disabilities could become familiar with each other (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* In the recent observational research by Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed outdoor play among children with and without disability. The researchers found that getting to know each other, making contact and interaction while playing together as process of inclusive outdoor play. These observational findings showed that familiarity and making contact determine social and inclusive play because children chose to play with children they already knew. 
* Ferguson et al. (2025) also found that the association between outdoor play and social emotional competence was not the same across all ethnic and deprivation groups. In the cross sectional analysis of 2568 children aged 7.1 to 12.6 years from multi ethnic urban cohort, outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, associations varies across same ethnic groups and according to weekday or weekend outdoor play.

=== '''Autonomy, parents and time''' ===

* Experiencing autonomy was identified as a personal factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children having some independence during outdoor play could promote their sense of independence over what they do and who they play with (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* Experiencing autonomy also included opportunities to play without direct involvement of parents. Some children with disabilities described wanting to play outside independently, although parental support could make outdoor play possible (Beekhuizen et al., 2025)
* Parents were identified as an environmental factors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that parental involvement could support children's participation in outdoor play, specially when child needed help to access or participate in outdoor play.
* Time constraints were considered as another environmental factor. Some children with disabilities were described as having limited outdoor play time due to parents work schedule, after-school arrangements or longer travel distance between home and school (Beekhuizen et al., 2025)

=== '''Outdoor environments and accessibility''' ===

* The outdoor play environment was identified as an environmental factor that could could support or restrict inclusive outdoor play. Children described both physical and social aspects of outdoor play environments. For example, children discussed the importance of physical and social safety, including traffic near playgrounds and disputes among children. Accessibility was particularly relevant to children with disabilities because opportunities for inclusive outdoor play could be affected by play environments and physical abilities (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* Pereira et al. (2024) provided evidence about the physical features of outdoor play spaces. Their systematic review included 51 articles representing 45 primary studies aged between 5 to 12 and examined particular environmental features like fixed structures, natural elements, floor marking, loose parts or equipment and available play area.
* Pereira et al. (2024) found positive association between outdoor play space features and children's behaviours. However, there was substantial variation between studies so the review could not establish clear conclusions about the effects of particular environmental features.

{{ic|Add an APA style table caption}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
|Key points   

* Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified personal, interacting and environmental factors that could facilitate or restrict inclusive outdoor play.
* Social relationships and familiarity affected participation, with children with disabilities reporting more barriers to inclusive outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* Associations between outdoor play and social-emotional competence varied across some population groups and play contexts (Ferguson et al., 2025).
|}

== '''What does recent research show about outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?''' ==

* Recent research has examined various aspects of outdoor play and children's emotional well-being and provides mixed evidence. These include emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. However, the associations varied across some ethnic groups and according to whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends.
* Dodd et al. (2026) provides longitudinal evidence from 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Children who played outdoors more frequently between approximately 2 and 4 years of age were more likely to follow a trajectory of low and stable internalising and externalising symptoms through to age 8.
* Poulos et al. (2026) examined children's emotional state immediately after recess during hot weather. Among 317 children in years 4 and 5, the positive effect was higher after outdoor recess and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings.
* Together, these studies show evidence of associations between outdoor play or outdoor recess and several aspects of emotional well-being. However, the studies did not show the common effect because the study differ in children's ages, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes.

=== '''Consistency of recent research findings''' ===
* Recent findings do not show the same effect across all outcomes. Ferguson et al. (2025) found that more frequent outdoor play was associated with lower total difficulties and greater prosocial behaviour. In contrast, Davenport et al. (2024) found that most associations between outdoor play and the physical, cognitive and social-emotional developmental indicators examined were not statistically significant. Therefore, the recent studies have not found significant association across all developmental outcomes.
* Findings can also differ according to the emotional outcome being measured. Poulos et al. (2026) found higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess, but no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess settings. Lee et al. (2025)  found that lower emotional dysregulation associated with greater afternoon outdoor play but higher emotional dysregulation is associated with greater outdoor play earlier and later in the day.
* Dodd et al. (2026) provides longer-term evidence. More frequent outdoor play during the preschool years predicted lower odds of belonging to the increasing or decreasing internalising and externalising symptom trajectory groups, relative to the normative low and stable group. This shows an association between early outdoor play and mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood rather than an emotional outcome measured at one point in time.
* Associations may also vary across children and outdoor play contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported differences according to ethnicity and whether outdoor play occurred on school days or weekends.
* Recent findings suggest that associations between outdoor play and emotional well-being are not the same across all outcomes, children and play contexts. The studies differ in children's age, research designs, measures of outdoor play, and emotional outcomes. Thus, findings should not be treated as evidence of one single effect.

=== '''Strengths and limitations of current research''' ===

* Longitudinal research strengthens the evidence concerning temporal relationship. Dodd et al. (2026) analysed 4,151 children from the Growing Up in Scotland study. Outdoor play was measured at approximately 2, 3 and 4 years of age, while internalising and externalising symptoms were measured at approximately 4, 5, 6 and 8 years. This allowed the researchers to examine whether early outdoor play predicted different mental-health symptom trajectories across childhood.
* Although, longitudinal evidence does not establish cause and effect. Dodd et al. (2026) identified reliance on parent report measures as a key limitation, while Lee et al. (2025) also discussed about the possibility of reverse causation when interpreting associations between the timing of outdoor play and emotional dysregulation.
* Measurement of outdoor play is another important consideration. Davenport et al. (2024) examined both parent reported and device measured outdoor play and also tested whether associations were independent of outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity. This approach distinguishes outdoor play from outdoor physical activity rather than interchangeable measures.
* Limitations are also present across the wider outdoor play literature. De Lannoy et al. (2023) identified 275 Canadian outdoor play publications and found that cross sectional study design was most common. Mental and emotional development had received less research attention in comparison to physical health and development.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 2. Comparison of recent research
!Study               
!Research method             
!Research strength                      
!Limitation                                                
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;Lee et al. (2025)&lt;/small&gt;                                     
|Observational; 6 month follow-up
|Examined the timing of outdoor play and tested working memory as a statistical mediator of the association with emotional dysregulation.     
|Observational mediation cannot establish causation; the authors also considered possible reverse causation when interpreting timing-related findings.
|-
|Ferguson et al. (2025)
|Cross sectional; multi ethnic urban cohort (N=2,568)
|Large sample allowed associations to be examined across population groups and school-day/weekend outdoor play.
|Cross-sectional design cannot establish temporal direction; associations also differed across some groups and play contexts.
|-
|Davenport et al. (2024)
|Observational; preschool sample (N=107)
|Used both parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play and distinguished outdoor play from outdoor moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA)
|Small sample , and most tested associations with developmental outcomes were not statistically significant.
|-
|Dodd et al. (2026)
|Longitudinal cohort (N = 4,151)
|Outdoor play was measured in the preschool years before later internalising and externalising symptom trajectories.
|Outdoor play and symptoms relied on parent reported measures, and the observational design does not establish conclusions.
|-
|Poulos et al. (2026)
|Recess comparison study (N=317)
|Compared children's positive and negative affect following outdoor, gymnasium and classroom recess rather than using outdoor recess without a comparison setting.
|Examined immediate affect during an extreme-heat context; higher positive affect was also found after gymnasium recess, so the result was not specific to outdoor recess.
|}
As shown in table 2, the recent evidence has different methodological strengths and limitations. Longitudinal data provide stronger evidence about temporal ordering than cross-sectional studies, while the use of parent-reported and device-measured outdoor play addresses some measurement concerns. However, much of the evidence remains observational, several studies rely on parent-reported measures, and differences in emotional outcomes and play contexts limit  the direct comparison between studies.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Key points

* Recent studies report positive, mixed and non-significant findings across different emotional outcomes and measures of outdoor play (Davenport et al., 2024; Ferguson et al., 2025).
* Lee et al. (2025) and Dodd et al. (2026) found associations across different emotional outcomes and time frames, from emotional dysregulation to later symptom trajectories.
* Differences in study design, measurement, children's age and play context mean the findings should not be interpreted as one consistent effect of outdoor play on emotional well-being. 

|}

== '''How do families, communities and schools support outdoor play opportunities?''' ==

* Opportunities for outdoor play are influenced by children's social and physical environments. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents, outdoor play environments, communities and time constraints as environmental factors that could act as facilitators or barriers to inclusive outdoor play.
* Support for outdoor play also involves whether children can participate with other children. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified experiencing autonomy,  growing up together, making contact and adapting ways of playing as factors involved in inclusive outdoor play.
* The  2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends increasing opportunities for active outdoor play in settings where people live, learn, work and play. It also emphasises collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to support equitable access to active outdoor play (Lee et al., 2025).

=== '''Families''' ===

* Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parents as an environmental factor in inclusive outdoor play. Children with disabilities described parents as important in encouraging participation and, for some children, helping to explain their disability to other children.
* Experiencing autonomy was identified as an important personal factor. Some children with disabilities wanted their parents to allow them freedom during outdoor play. Some preferred their parents not to accompany them to the playground, while others were comfortable with parents remaining at a reasonable distance (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* These findings indicate that parental support and children's autonomy can both be relevant to opportunities for outdoor play. For some children with disabilities, support could be necessary for participation while opportunities to play more independently were also valued (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified parental support as important for facilitating positive inclusive play experiences. The authors also recommended providing children and parents with knowledge about disabilities and possible adaptations that can support participation
* Family level opportunities also need to be interpreted alongside the time constraints. Some children attending special education described long journeys between school and home that reduced the time available for outdoor play (Beekhuizen et al., 2025). This means that opportunities for outdoor play cannot be interpreted only in terms of children's or parents' preferences.

=== '''Communities''' ===

* Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified communities and the outdoor play environment as  environmental factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described physically and socially safe playgrounds as important. While barriers included structure of playgrounds that made participation difficult for some children with disabilities.
* The social environment of a community was also important. Children with disabilities described smaller communities, such as villages and schools, the places where other children and parents could become more familiar with disability. This familiarity was associated with greater acceptance and stronger connections with other children (Beekhuizen et al., 2025).
* Recent  observational research also shows that physical access alone does not explain inclusive outdoor play. Beekhuizen et al. (2026) observed 63 children with and without disabilities during six inclusive outdoor play sessions and assessed both children's playfulness and environmental supportiveness. Children with disabilities showed significantly lower playfulness scores indicating that opportunities for inclusive play were not experienced equally.
* The 2025 Position Statement on Active Outdoor Play recommends collaboration across sectors, settings and societies to preserve, promote and value equitable access to active outdoor play. This places responsibility for outdoor play opportunities across communities and wider systems rather than on children and families alone (Lee et al., 2025).

=== '''Schools''' ===

* Schools can provide opportunities for children with and without disabilities to become familiar with one another. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified growing up together and making contact as interacting factors in inclusive outdoor play. Children described familiarity with other children as making contact easier.
* School circumstances can also affect the time and opportunities available for outdoor play. Some children attending special primary education described long travel times between school and home as reducing the time available to play outdoors. Beekhuizen et al. (2025) identified these experiences under time constraints.
* Recess provides another school setting in which children's emotional experiences have been examined. Poulos et al. (2026) studied 317 Year 4 and 5 children during extreme heat weather and found significantly higher positive affect after outdoor and gymnasium recess than after classroom recess. There were no significant differences in negative affect between the three recess     settings.
* Poulos et al. (2026) identified implications for school health, policy and equity, including the need for heat adaptive infrastructure to support access to recess environments during extreme heat. However, the findings do not show that outdoor recess is always better than indoor recess because positive affect was also higher following gymnasium recess.

Quiz

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ True
- False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}


{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|1. Children who have access to the same outdoor playground may still have different opportunities to participate in play.

True                                                                                                                                                                                
False                                                                                                                                                                                                 
2. Outdoor play has the same relationship with children's emotional well-being regardless of how door play or emotional well being is measured.                                                                                                                                                               
True                                                                                                                                                                                
False                                                                                                                                                                              

|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|Scenario

Two primary school aged children A and B enjoy playing  outdoors. They both lived near the same playground. Child A was very familiar  with the playground and knows several other children who play there and  easily join the games. While child B has disability, uses mobility device and  does not know other children at playground. Some parts of the playground are  difficult to access and joining other children who are already playing can  also be challenging. Child B's parents can provide support, although the child  also prefers to play more independently. 

Consider both children can access the same playground, but  do they have same level opportunities to take part in outdoor play?
|}
'''''&lt;u&gt;Note: Answers to the quiz is 1: True and 2 False&lt;/u&gt;'''''

== '''Conclusion''' ==

* Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being are measured in different ways across recent research. Outdoor play is not equivalent to outdoor physical activity, while emotional outcomes include emotional dysregulation, social-emotional competence, positive and negative affect, and internalising and externalising symptoms. These differences need to be considered when findings across studies are compared.
* Research also provides mixed evidence about how outdoor play may be related to emotional well-being. Gross's (2015) emotion-regulation framework can be applied to emotional situations experienced during play, but it does not show that outdoor play improves emotion regulation. Lee et al. (2025) provides more direct evidence of a possible cognitive process, with working memory statistically mediating the association between afternoon outdoor play and lower emotional dysregulation. However, this observational finding does not establish causation.
* Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant.
* Recent findings are not consistent across all outcomes or contexts. Ferguson et al. (2025) reported associations with better social-emotional competence, Dodd et al. (2026) found longitudinal associations with internalising and externalising symptom trajectories, and Poulos et al. (2026) found differences in positive but not negative affect following recess. In contrast, most associations examined by Davenport et al. (2024) were not statistically significant.
* Overall, current research supports an association between outdoor play and some aspects of children's emotional well-being but does not establish one consistent effect. Differences in measurement, research design, children and play contexts remain important when interpreting the evidence.

==See also==
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

https://www-taylorfrancis-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/books/mono/10.4324/9781003349655/right-child-play-naomi-lott Book Chapter, 2 {{ic|Move to References and cite}}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation&lt;nowiki/&gt;- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy&lt;nowiki/&gt;- Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}}

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinal_study&lt;nowiki/&gt;-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}}

[[Cognitive psychology|https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology]]-Wikipedia article

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affordance&lt;nowiki/&gt;-Wikipedia article {{ic|Use an internal links as shown in Tutorial 2}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Beekhuizen, R. Q., Bolster, E. A. M., Gorter, J. W., Henry, N. L., Visser, K., Wittink, H., Kotte, E. M. W., Sol, M. E., &amp; Bloemen, M. A. T. (2025). Play Together? Unveiling Facilitators and Barriers to Inclusive Outdoor Play for Dutch Children With and Without Disabilities: A Qualitative Study. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(6), Article e70154. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70154

Biino, V., Pesce, C., &amp; Martins, C. (2025). Motor Skill Development at Preschool Age in Girls and Boys: The Role of Outdoor Free Play. Children, 12(5), Article 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/children12050594

Davenport, C., Kuzik, N., Larouche, R., &amp; Carson, V. (2025). The Associations Between Parental-Reported and Device-Based Measured Outdoor Play and Health Indicators of Physical, Cognitive, and Social–Emotional Development in Preschool-Aged Children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 37(2), 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2023-0119

de Lannoy, L., Barbeau, K., Seguin, N., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2023). Scoping review of children’s and youth’s outdoor play publications in Canada. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 43(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.1.01

Dodd, H. F., Cordwell, K., Hesketh, K., Johnstone, A., de la Torre-Luque, A., &amp; McCrorie, P. (2026). Early outdoor play predicts trajectories of child mental health in a population-based cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.70175

Ferguson, M., Teyhan, A., Lovell, R., Dodd, H., Wheeler, B., &amp; McEachan, R. (2025). The association between park visits, outdoor play and child social-emotional competency in a multi-ethnic, urban cohort. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 9, Article 100293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2025.100293

Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion Regulation: Current Status and Future Prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

Lee, E.-Y., de Lannoy, L., Kim, Y.-B., Rathod, A., James, M. E., Lopes, O., Nasrallah, B., Thankarajah, A., Adjei-Boadi, D., de Barros, M. I. A., Duncan, S., Miller, R. M., Mygind, L., Vanderloo, L. M., Wang, P.-Y., &amp; Tremblay, M. S. (2025). 2025 Position statement on active outdoor play. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 22(1), Article 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-025-01813-9

Lee, J. J., Flouri, E., &amp; Jackson, Y. (2025). The Role of Timing and Amount of Outdoor Play in Emotional Dysregulation in Preschool Children. Child: Care, Health &amp; Development, 51(1), Article e70020. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.70020

Morgenthaler, T., Lynch, H., Loebach, J., Pentland, D., &amp; Schulze, C. (2024). Using the Theory of Affordances to Understand Environment–Play Transactions: Environmental Taxonomy of Outdoor Play Space Features—A Scoping Review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 78(4), Article 7804185120. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2024.050606

Pereira, J. V., Vila-Nova, F., Veiga, G., Lopes, F., &amp; Cordovil, R. (2024). Associations between outdoor play features and children’s behavior and health: A systematic review. Health &amp; Place, 87, Article 103235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2024.103235

Poulos, A., Hassan, U. A., Wilson, K., Price, P. M., Vanos, J., &amp; Quilla, J. (2026). Differences in Schoolchildren’s Emotional State After Indoor Versus Outdoor Recess in Extreme‐Heat Weather. The Journal of School Health, 96(4), Article e70135. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.70135

}}

==External links==
{{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}}

https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/outdoor-play&lt;nowiki/&gt;-Encyclopedia in early childhood development

https://www.outdoorplaycanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2026/03/The-2025-AOP10-Position-Statement.pdf&lt;nowiki/&gt;-Position Statement

https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2019-to-grow-up-healthy-children-need-to-sit-less-and-play-more&lt;nowiki/&gt;-World Health Organisation

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Children]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Nature]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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      <text bytes="71" sha1="5jrbbm309aj9oqvu8d5txku4pr5mkbq" xml:space="preserve">==About me==

==Book chapter I'm working on==

==Social contributions==</text>
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      <text bytes="1130" sha1="pxn8d7kf4c56wa45auihuqok9in8np3" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home.html University of Canberra.]   growing interest in ''Child Psychology''. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life.

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

== Hobbies ==
I enjoy [[w:Hiking|hiking]], it is a kind of therapy to me. I like to be in the nature and read books and listen stories. I like to spend my free time with my family and friends. 

== Social contribution ==
{{ic|Use a numbered list as shown in Tutorial 2}}

https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/457888&lt;nowiki/&gt;-feedback requested

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Exercise gamification motivation#Learning features]]- Viewed</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset</title>
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      <text bytes="11126" sha1="4oiw2oi3je1wlzpwyxzwc1jljl8c1rr" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Developing a growth mindset:&lt;br&gt; How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Openminded.png|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Illustration of being open-minded]]

; Imagine this ...

Two childhood best friends find themselves in two different places when they finish high school. Though living in the same neighbourhood, attending the same schools, enjoying the same hobbies and receiving equal opportunities, one is earning a scholarship to study their dream degree, and the other is falling behind. How could two people with the same opportunities have vastly separate life outcomes? Well, one evaded challenge for fear of failing, while the other appraised these failures as opportunities to learn. The margin between one and the other was not created based on ability, but from mindset.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* A person's mindset is the foundation in which learning and motivation build up on. 
* Meaning the mindset that we adopt is highly influential in how we perceive our abilities and intelligence as well as how we conduct ourselves in facing new adversities
* In order to foster learning and motivation, an individual must shift from a fixed mindset to a growth mindset in order to embrace challenges and gain success {{ic|This is the closest of the three opening bullet-points to addressing the topic. Need more of this.}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

{{ic|None of these questions directly address the topic: &quot;How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained?&quot;}}

* How does a growth mindset differ from a fixed mindset?
* What is the role of neuroplasticity in changing and sustaining a mindset?
* How can failure, feedback and goal-setting affect the development of a growth mindset? 
* How do educational practices nurture a student's growth mindset?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Growth and Fixed Mindsets==
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== Mindsets ===

* Mindsets are an established process or set &quot;rules&quot; or structure that an individual adopts as part of their way of thinking, attitudes, and beliefs. 
* A mindset is highly influential in the way in which we conduct ourselves in terms of facing challenges, and how an individual may perceive failure and success (Dweck &amp; Leggett, 1988)

=== Growth versus fixed mindset's ===

* Mueller and Dweck (1988) established and developed two different Mindsets people adopt; growth and fixed, these mindsets run on a continuum
* Someone who adopts a growth mindset views that their abilities, skills and intelligence are sculpted, being able to grow and develop from setbacks as well as view failures as something to improve upon (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1988)
* Someone who adopts a fixed mindset's see that their abilities, skills and intelligence is static and are simply as a result of a persons genetic disposition unlikely to change (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1988)
* Implicit theory of intelligence - the belief that intelligence is an ability that can be shaped or &quot;moulded&quot; and developed (Dweck and Leggett, 1988)

== Physiological affects of mindset's ==

* The role of neuroplasticity is to enable and create new neural pathways throughout the brain especially important in learning a new skill or behaviour - proving that the ability of a person's mindset is not fixed but ever changing (e.g. the process of neurogenesis, or synaptogenesis)
* Therefore, repeated practice of a certain skill or behaviour (I.e. fixed Mindset), may strengthen these pathways in creating persistent and default processes in skill development - important in understanding how certain mindset's can be sustained
* In the context of growth Mindsets, neurobiology supports the underlying physiological mechanisms that demonstrate that a new mindset can be constructed on a neurological level to adapt to learning, and development (Sarrasin et al., 2018)

== Failure, feedback and goal setting == 
{{ic|Include an introductory paragraph before branching into sub-sections}}

=== Responses to challenges and failure ===

* Learned helplessness theory – exposure to repeated negative outcomes or failures could lead to a person reducing their attempts to change a situation (Seligman &amp; Maier, 1967) 
* In the instance of Peter (see learning feature scenario), repeated failure reinforces the notion that their actions will not change their outcomes – this underlines the issue of how growth mindset is sustained or the beginning of a fixed mind/learned helplessness begins

=== Mastery goals versus performance goals ===
* Mastery goals involve an individual who is motivated in achieving competence, understanding and self-improvement (Dweck &amp; Leggett, 1988) 
* An individual motivated by performance goals seek to source their goals to appear competent relative to others 
* Dweck and Leggett (1988) connect goals to a growth mindset – the type of goals and motivation for goals may affect the types of mindset that you may adopt (Yu &amp; McLellan, 2020; Combette et al., 2024) 

== Mindset's in the educational setting ==

* Implicit theory of intelligence - the belief that intelligence is an ability that can be shaped or &quot;moulded&quot; and developed (Dweck and Leggett, 1988)

=== Pedagogical interventions and forming a growth mindset ===

*It is well versed that the intervention of praise and positive feedback from teachers and educators is a positive predictor through which mindset changes can be achieved (Gunderson et al., 2013)
*However, Mueller and Dweck (1998) suggested praise before failure may demonstrate lower persistence or high disappointment, but praise directed towards the effort of the student promotes improvement (person vs process praise)
*It is also important to consider the role of the teachers beliefs and attitudes in the classroom environment in which a growth mindset is successfully cultivated (Mesler et al., 2021)

=== Academic outcomes and a growth mindset ===

*Blackwell et al. (2007) suggested that the use of growth mindset interventions provided promising evidence in predicting that adopting growth mindset behaviours is reflective in positive academic achievement
*Also contested that a growth mindset was sufficient with its association with academic achievement by relating to mastery goals however has a weak association between goals and goal achievement (Burnette et al., 2018)
*Macnamara and Burgoyne (2023) systematic review and meta-analysis argue that such strong positive association between academic achievement and growth mindset interventions was as a result from targeting students with strong fixed mindsets

==Learning features==
{{Robelbox|title=Learned Helplessness scenario...|theme=3}}Peter has always been a good student in primary school. He always found that science was his strongest subject with his passion to become a biologist once he is older. Peter always takes pride in his abilities with his test results and assessment pieces always gaining praise from his teachers and parents.

When starting high school and feeling his most confident academically, he enrols in advanced science classes. However, he finds that high school science classes are far more difficult than he expected. After receiving a D in his first quiz and some harsh feedback, Peter feels discouraged and defeated. Peter believes that he is no longer good at science and believes he will never pass this class. As a result, Peter stops attending class and accepts that he will never become a biologist.

{{ic|A stronger scenario would illustrate the development of a GM}}

{{RoundBoxBottom}} 

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
{{expand}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[w:Mindset|Mindsets]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blackwell, L. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., &amp; Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x

Burnette, J. L., Billingsley, J., Banks, G. C., Knouse, L. E., Hoyt, C. L., Pollack, J. M., &amp; Simon, S. (2023). A systematic review and meta-analysis of growth mindset interventions: For whom, how, and why might such interventions work? Psychological Bulletin, 149(3–4), 174–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000368

Combette, L. T., Rotgé, J.-Y., &amp; Schmidt, L. (2024). Growth mindset is associated with mastery goals in adulthood. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 20(3), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.11915

Dweck, C. S., &amp; Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256

Gunderson, E. A., Sorhagen, N. S., Gripshover, S. J., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., &amp; Levine, S. C. (2018). Parent praise to toddlers predicts fourth grade academic achievement via children’s incremental mindsets. Developmental Psychology, 54(3), 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000444

Macnamara, B. N., &amp; Burgoyne, A. P. (2023). Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. Psychological Bulletin, 149(3–4), 133–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000352

Mesler, R. M., Corbin, C. M., &amp; Martin, B. H. (2021). Teacher mindset is associated with development of students’ growth mindset. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 76, 101299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101299

Mueller, C. M., &amp; Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33

Sarrasin, J. B., Nenciovici, L., Foisy, L.-M. B., Allaire-Duquette, G., Riopel, M., &amp; Masson, S. (2018). Effects of teaching the concept of neuroplasticity to induce a growth mindset on motivation, achievement, and brain activity: A meta-analysis. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 12, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2018.07.003

Seligman, M. E., &amp; Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0024514

Yu, J., &amp; McLellan, R. (2020). Same mindset, different goals and motivational frameworks: Profiles of mindset-based meaning systems. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 62, 101901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101901

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiiEeMN7vbQ Developing a Growth Mindset with Carol Dweck] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J-swZaKN2Ic The Power of Yet | Carol S Dweck | Tedx] (Youtube.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset/Growth]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Book Chapter Topic */ {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}</comment>
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      <text bytes="1074" sha1="jzs92h7px8uyage2ofgg6o25evcm20o" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, im Noorah. I am a current student at the University of Canberra, studying a double degree in [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/SCSC01/2/2026 psychology and law.] I am in my third year, working towards becoming hopefully a lawyer, i chose to do psychology to gain more knowledge in human behaviour. 

== Hobbies ==

*Wellbeing 
*Walking and spending time outdoors 
*Creative projects 
*Flowers and plants

== Book Chapter Topic ==
I will be writing a book chapter on the emotion of [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Awe_and_nature&amp;veaction=edit awe and its relationship with nature.] {{ic|Use an internal link as shown in Tutorial 2}}

== Social Contributions ==

# Added a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Thirst regulation|discussion]] point about referencing. 
# Added to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Grit and academic achievement|discussion]] about captioning figures. 
# Added to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Exteroception and emotion|discussion]] about correct APA subheading requirements.</text>
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      <text bytes="14383" sha1="cazi83kzyno6c6vgssm6mi16cqq4ujx" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Awe and nature:&lt;br&gt;How do nature-based experiences affect awe?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
[[File:Valley View Yosemite August 2013 002.jpg|right|thumb|220px|'''Figure 1'''. Yosemite Mountains]]

'''Case Study: Feeling small in Yosemite '''

Imagine standing at Yosemite National Park, you see vast landscapes of mountains, immersed in green forests and the sky (see Figure 1). But what [[TESOL/Emotions|emotions]] do you think you might feel? You might feel physically smaller than the mountains, and you might suddenly feel as if your worries and fears feel less consuming. This complex emotional experience is called awe. 

Researchers investigated this experience by asking visitors at Yosemite to draw a picture of themselves after viewing the parks landscape, the participants had a tendency to draw themselves significantly smaller to the mountains. They compared these drawings to those of tourists at Fisherman’s Wharf, a more urban setting, who drew big portraits. This identified the idea of the small self, further research revealed that on the day individuals experienced awe, they were also more likely to perceive themselves as smaller (Monroy &amp; Kelter, 2023).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

This chapter examines the psychological processes underlying nature induced awe, and how these experiences influence the sense of self and wellbeing, and whether awe can be recreated through digital experiences of nature. 
* The Yosemite findings raise a fundamental question. What is it about vast natural environments that can transform the way we think of individual experiences and the world around us? 
* Understanding this relationship through psychology can help investigate the cognitive and emotional processes involved in awe, and how this emotion can influence mental wellbeing. 
* Psychological research has revealed why certain natural experiences may evoke awe, and how awe changes attention and sense of self, and ultimately if these changes contribute to wellbeing. 
* Understanding the relationship between awe and nature, can help explain the impacts of nature on an individual.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
;Focus questions
* What psychological processes explain the experience of awe in nature?  
* How does nature-induced awe influence the sense of self and psychological wellbeing? 
* How can technology recreate nature-induced experiences of awe?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Psychological processes that explain the experience of awe in nature==

* Awe is a profound feeling of sense of self, people often feel a sense of awe towards things like nature. Awe can be explained as a distinct self transcending [[emotion]], awe is proposed to shift peoples perspective from a egocentric focus to a more broader view of the self (Jiang et al., 2024).
* To understand awe the two appraisals are central to the foundation of how individuals experience awe. Keltner and Hadith (2003) proposed this psychological model introducing the idea of perceived vastness and need for accommodation.
* Perceived vastness is explained to be something so physically or conceptually larger than self. 
* The second theory is the need for accommodation, which states the active mental struggle to comprehend the extraordinary experience.
* Together they create what ultimately make up the feeling of awe, the process of awe can lead to radical changes in world view and sense of self (Jiang et al., 2024). Because of these two appraisals it helps us understand why it is so common to experience awe towards mountains or the ocean.

=== Attention and everyday awe ===

* Traditional theories emphasize vastness, awe does not only occur during rare encounters with dramatic landscape. 
* More recent research has introduced this concept of wondering awe, a gentler more accessible experience that can emerge through attentive engagement with ordinary aspects of nature (Büssing et al., 2025). 
* Rather than the exposure of Yosemite mountains, wondering awe emphasises an individual who pauses to notice the warmth of sunlight or the movement of leaves and feels a sense of awe. 
* This contradicts the traditional explanation of awe, if perceived vastness is central to the experience how can something so small like sunlight evoke it? 
* One possibility is that awe is influenced by the meaning and attention given to the stimuli. Slowing down and becoming engulfed in &quot;normal&quot; [[nature]] to notice complexity and beauty, establishes this idea of wondering awe. 
* Büssing et al., (2025) suggests nature exposure alone may not actively improve psychological wellbeing, instead the argument is that wondering awe may help explain how an individual's engagement with nature can inflict awe.
* Rogers (2019) has a similar idea called micro awe and focuses on the innate biological connection to nature.

=== Changing nature and awe ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
;Imagine this ...
You walk the same route home every day after work, most days you barely notice the sky. But today the sky is filled with a vivid sunset (see Figure 2), you stop look up and take a brief moment to appreciate the sky, the location has not changed, but why are you experiencing a sense of awe in a familiar environment?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Sunset may 2006 panorama.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2''': A sunset]]

* The ability of nature to evoke awe is also influenced by the context in which it is experienced. 
* Natural environments are not static, the same location can appear ordinary in one moment than extraordinary in another moment. 
* Smalley and White (2023), highlighted the concept of ephemeral phenomena such as sunsets, rainbows and storms, and found that these temporary changes influenced the connection of awe towards nature. 
* Smalley and White (2023) findings suggest that a landscape does not have fixed awe value, instead its capacity to evoke awe may shift with changes in weather, light and time of day (Smalley &amp; White, 2023).

== Awe and psychological wellbeing ==
Experiencing Awe in nature can influence an individual's immediate emotional state, it may also change how people perceive themselves and others. Research has associated awe with change in self focus, perspective, social connection and wellbeing (Jiang et al.,2024; Monroy &amp; Keltner, 2023).  

* Understanding these effects may help explain why certain encounter with nature can change our perspectives.

=== The small self and perspective ===

* One of the most recognised psychological effects of awe is the &quot;small self&quot;, where an individual experiences a reduced sense of self in relation to perceiving something much larger (Monroy &amp; Keltner, 2023). 
* This concept can be seen in the Yosemite study introduced earlier, where the study highlighted the small self, being exposed to the mountains made the participants feel small. 

* Feeling physically small does not mean feeling insignificant. Jiang et al., (2024) distinguishes that we may feel physically smaller but awe cannot make us feel insignificant instead it shifts our attention away from an egocentric perspective to broader view of the world. 
* This broader perspective can explain why everyday worries can temporarily feel less consuming during awe. 
* Büssing et al., (2025) found that awe and gratitude mediated the relationship between experiences of nature and wellbeing, suggesting that meaningful engagement with nature may matter more beyond simply being present in a natural environment.

=== Awe and general wellbeing ===

* Awe can help explain why some experiences in nature have positive psychological effects, ultimately it is how an individual responds to nature. 
* The experience of awe may also extend beyond personal wellbeing by changing individual perspectives. Awe has been associated with greater prosocial behaviour and social connection (Jiang et al., 2024), while sublime experiences in nature can involve feelings of vitality, freedom and unity with the natural world (Bethelmy &amp; Corraliza, 2019). 
* Awe and wellbeing is complex, because awe directly is not always a positive emotion. Awe can occur alongside negative emotions such as fear or even mixed emotional states (Jiang et al., 2024). 
* Awe and fear can arise when vast powerful aspects of nature are perceived as a threat, such as a bushfire or flood the psychological impacts would probably not be beneficial. This demonstrates that the psychological benefits of nature induced awe may depend on how the experience is emotionally interpreted, particularly whether it is perceived as positive or threatening.

== Awe in the digital world ==

* Traditionally awe in nature has been studied with an individual who physically encounters vast natural environments, but what if we could feel awe through technology? 
* Developments in digital technology challenge the idea of foundational awe, and question weather individuals need to be present in nature to experience awe. 
* Virtual technology can recreate digital environments with the same characteristics such as spaciousness, scale and sensory immersion. This idea allows research into whether psychological experience of awe can also occur through simulated nature.

* Van Houwelingen-Snippe et al., (2020) found that spacious digital nature can make an individual experience awe especially when viewed alone suggesting the idea of perception scale. 
* Similarly, virtual reality can create immersive environments that increase feelings of presence and perceived vastness, providing another method for eliciting awe (Jiang et al., 2024). 
* These findings raise an interesting question, if awe depends on vastness does the nature producing it need to be real? Digital nature can be a useful tool in understanding the psychlogical process of awe more clearly, and achieve clinical based wellbeing treatments so everyone can feel awe.

;Quiz: Take home questions
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{An individual must be physically present in a natural environment to experience nature induced awe:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Spaciousness in a digital natural enviroment can contribute to the feeling of awe:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Nature induced awe must include vastness and need for accommodation rather than nature exposure alone. The two appraisal provide a foundational understanding of awe. 
* Wondering awe and ephemeral phenomena demonstrate that extraordinary experiences can emerge from ordinary or changing aspects in nature. 
* Awe can change how individuals perceive themselves and their experiences, rather than feeling insignificance its the shrinking of egocentric self focus that encourages a broader thinking. 
* The psychological effects of awe are not universally positive, natural environment can evoke happiness, social connection. But awe can coexist with threat and fear. Therefore, how an individual emotionally interprets awe, the certain interpretation may influence if it contributes to psychological wellbeing. 
* Digital and virtual environments can recreate characteristics of nature, suggesting that psychological perception may be as important as physical presence in nature.

==See also==
List [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Awe and the diminished self|Awe and the diminished self]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and Wellbeing]] (Book chapter, 2017)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Nature connection and emotional well-being|Nature connection and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2024)
* [[Psychological well-being]] (Wikipedia) 

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Bonnell, M. (2026, March 4). ''Nature, awe and mental health: Why we feel better outdoors''. Peaceful Mind. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://peacefulmind.com.au/2026/03/04/the-role-of-nature-and-awe-in-creating-a-calmer-mind/&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Büssing, A., Wilhelm, J., &amp; Rodrigues Recchia, D. (2025). Wondering awe is the mediator of the link between experience of nature and psychological wellbeing—Relevance for public health. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''22''(11), 1679. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22111679&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Jiang, T., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W., Yin, Y., Needy, L., &amp; Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. ''Nature Reviews Psychology'', ''3''(475–488), 1–14. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-024-00322-z&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Monroy, M., &amp; Keltner, D. (2022). Awe as a pathway to mental and physical health. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''18''(2), 174569162210948. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221094856&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Rogers, K. (2019). Biophilia hypothesis. In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.britannica.com/science/biophilia-hypothesis&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Smalley, A. J., &amp; White, M. P. (2023). Beyond blue-sky thinking: Diurnal patterns and ephemeral meteorological phenomena impact appraisals of beauty, awe, and value in urban and natural landscapes. ''Journal of Environmental Psychology'', ''86''(101955), 101955. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.101955&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Houwelingen-Snippe, J., van Rompay, T. J. L., de Jong, M. D. T., &amp; Ben Allouch, S. (2020). Does digital nature enhance social aspirations? An experimental study. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''17''(4), 1454. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041454&lt;/nowiki&gt;

}}

==External links==
* [https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/video/item/how_scientists_measure_awe_in_the_wild How Scientists Measure Awe in the Wild] (Greater Good Magazine)
* [https://mindfulforestbathing.com.au/the-transformative-power-of-awe-in-nature/ The Transformative Power of Awe in Nature] (Mindful in nature)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/finding-new-home/201807/the-psychology-awe-awe-in-nature The Psychology of Awe: Awe in Nature] (PsychologyToday)

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      <text bytes="8025" sha1="k2n3jirjr6p5vra9uilq21fsjs0v5ul" xml:space="preserve">== Reference material ==

Hi, I recently did some work on aspects of perfectionism and procrastination. You may find these starter references helpful. Goodluck.

Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Hewitt, P. L., &amp; Koledin, S. (1992). Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students. ''Social Behavior &amp; Personality: An International Journal'', 20(2), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1992.20.2.85

Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., &amp; Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449-468. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/BF01172967 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967]

Holden, C. L. (2020). The 'perfect' counsellor: Personality factors and multidimensional perfectionism. ''British Journal of Guidance &amp; Counselling'', 48(2), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2019.1682122

Stoeber, J., &amp; Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2

[[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 22:10, 19 August 2026 (UTC)

:Hi, thank you so much! I already had some of these articals, but one of them was new to me. This was really helpful! [[User:U3222012|U3222012]] ([[User talk:U3222012|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3222012|contribs]]) 09:30, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Check out other chapters about procrastination ==

There have been several previous procrastination chapters, so make sure to check them out: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:12, 20 August 2026 (UTC)

== Resource and research suggestion ==

Hi, I found your topic on perfectionism and procrastination really interesting. Your distinction between perfectionistic concerns and perfectionistic helps explain why certain aspects of perfectionism may be more strongly linked to procrastination than others. I noticed you have included research examining multidimensional perfectionism and procrastination, which should help support this distinction.
One suggestion would be to use your meta-analytic research to clearly compare which aspects of perfectionism have the strongest relationship with procrastination. This could strengthen your section on how perfectionism relates to procrastination and help connect the research directly to your focus questions.
Good luck, you have done an amazing job!! [[User:U3253354|U3253354]] ([[User talk:U3253354|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3253354|contribs]]) 02:26, 25 August 2026 (UTC)

:Hi! Thank you so much for your support and for your valuable suggestions.I really appreciate it! [[User:U3222012|U3222012]] ([[User talk:U3222012|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3222012|contribs]]) 11:27, 26 August 2026 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3222012|Hi [[User:U3222012|U3222012]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:04, 10 September 2026 (UTC)
|}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
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&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 1-level --&gt;
# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings)
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# Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement
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# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
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# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
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# Consider more clearly distinguishing between FQ2 and FQ3 (or perhaps combining)
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&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
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# Promising development
# Consider integrating key theories earlier on in the chapter rather than having a stand-alone section
# Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a &quot;down&quot; style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
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# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
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&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
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## capitalisation
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&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
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&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Basic but effective
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence
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-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:04, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="5272" sha1="tc2qe4sd8heonz2vpz3yb3i5y2jfpky" xml:space="preserve">==Honours project==
I've had a student write a thesis about this that I could share if you get in touch.

---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:40, 20 August 2026 (UTC)

==Comment==
This is shaping up to be a very interesting chapter. Your explanation of awe and the psychological processes that explain the experience are interesting, especially the role of perceived vastness. I am curious about how different people or groups experience awe, does gender or age have an impact? I am looking forward to seeing how this develops further.  [[User:Tammysaurus|Tammysaurus]] ([[User talk:Tammysaurus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tammysaurus|contribs]]) 10:09, 27 August 2026 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
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&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# The subtitle needs to be in the form of a question
# I've propsed a question that is broader than the original focus on the diminished self (although this can be part of the answer): &quot;How do nature-based experiences affect awe?&quot; But you can also consider, why this (awe) matters and how it can be enhanced/facilitated through nature.
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# Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development and/or refinement
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# Avoid having sections with only 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings (fixed)
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# Very good alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure, but there may be room for improvement
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# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
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# Promising development
# Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic
# Provide more detailed edit summaries
# There are some important facets of awe that need to be more clearly described and connected to nature. For example, see Day, A. (2025). ''Can a video of space elicit awe? Exploring the six facets of awe and the role of openness''. Honours thesis. University of Canberra. https://drive.google.com/file/d/14BUmQu8uVZ83h-cYv-X9w0gfJ374EWYH/view?usp=sharing
# The emphasis on digital nature-based awe is optional (i.e., not necessary to answer the question), so don't get side-tracked by it. It could just be an example in a feature box.
# The dentist I go to shows calm pictures of nature on the ceiling with calm music which I found beautifly distracting.
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is well underway
# What are the practical, take-home messages?
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Relevant figure(s) presented, captioned, and cited
&lt;!-- Caption --&gt;
# Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Two in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also embed links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]].
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
# Place each quiz question in the most relevant section
# Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Basic
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- Move --&gt;
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the &quot;External links&quot; section
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable)
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Very good
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Very good
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
# Use an internal link (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 06:53, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy fatigue and emotional exhaustion</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Heading casing</comment>
      <origin>2832528</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1788" sha1="4f9ubp50cgxgokv7zsun1m4hdhev3pu" xml:space="preserve">== Suggestions ==

Here is a link to a source that you might find useful: https://doi.org/10.2478/s13382-013-0123-1

It is a journal article looking at emotional labour being a mediating factor between empathy and emotional exhaustion in teachers.

[[User:U3143751|U3143751]] ([[User talk:U3143751|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3143751|contribs]]) 03:48, 20 August 2026 (UTC)

:I found this article which may be useful for your research. Its refers to stress and burnout impairment on mental health practitioners and the importance of self care and well-being in empathetic demanding careers.. 
:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-019-09382-w
:Good Luck! [[User:U3211150|U3211150]] ([[User talk:U3211150|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3211150|contribs]]) 05:22, 20 August 2026 (UTC)

Hey, this is a journal artical about empathy fatigue among physicians in China. I thought it might help. https://www.proquest.com/docview/3126416052?parentSessionId=d5Mz1KD9zWqG%2FCHjIEsnspVXqPb3%2BSdkYIpeH7pOViY%3D&amp;pq-origsite=primo&amp;accountid=28889&amp;sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals

== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:U3143751|Hi [[User:U3143751|U3143751]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:56, 10 September 2026 (UTC)
|}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Competence motivation in self-determination theory</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3285438</username>
        <id>3103750</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added the recommended 'See also' heading to the book chapter.</comment>
      <origin>2832537</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="10921" sha1="cdlpr41icenv6eif6xcp38do7f8lgra" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Competence motivation in self-determination theory:&lt;br&gt; How does the need for competence function within self-determination theory to shape motivation and behaviour?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Scenario'''  

Imagine this you've just been assigned a project to review and reorganise over 500 folders across your team's records management system, with no real guidance on where to start or what the finished result should look like. At first, it seems manageable, maybe just one small sub-section of the files, so you jump in and start asking colleagues which folders they'd like kept. But as weeks pass, the project keeps revealing new layers of complexity you hadn't anticipated. You find yourself unsure whether you're organising things the &quot;right&quot; way, second-guessing decisions you've already made, and increasingly doubting your own ability to manage a task this size (see Figure 1). Is the project simply harder than expected, or is something else going on?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Uncertainty and self-doubt can arise when tackling an unfamiliar, complex task without clear guidance or feedback.]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

People are not motivated equally by the same environment. According to [[w:Self-determination theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT), the need for '''competence''', feeling effective and capable, is one of three basic psychological needs, alongside autonomy and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). When competence is supported through optimal challenge and structured feedback, intrinsic motivation and wellbeing increase; when it is frustrated, motivation, performance, and wellbeing decline (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Understanding competence need satisfaction has direct, practical value in workplaces, education, and training design, because it explains why some environments motivate people and others quietly cause disengagement.
 
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What is competence, according to self-determination theory?
* What is intrinsic motivation, and how does competence relate to it?
* What is cognitive evaluation theory, and how does it explain the impact of competence on intrinsic motivation?
* What factors support or undermine intrinsic motivation through their impact on competence?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Self-determination theory and competence==
This section introduces self-determination theory as a whole, then narrows in on where competence specifically fits within it.
 
===What is self-determination theory?===
Self-determination theory is a broad theory of human motivation built on three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985; Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). Competence shares some conceptual ground with [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]], particularly his esteem needs, though unlike Maslow's sequential hierarchy, SDT treats competence as continuously essential alongside autonomy and relatedness, rather than emerging only once lower needs are met (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
 
===What is competence within self-determination theory?===
Competence sits within Basic Psychological Needs Theory, one of SDT's mini-theories (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). It specifically refers to the need to feel effective and capable of producing desired outcomes, rather than the mere possession of a skill. Optimal challenge and structured feedback support competence, while feedback that is absent, harsh, or overly controlling frustrates it (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000). Competence differs from generic self-esteem or confidence, as it is tied to specific, situated experiences of mastery rather than a global self-view.
 
==Competence and intrinsic motivation==
Beyond simply being a need, competence plays a direct role in shaping the quality of a person's motivation, particularly whether it is intrinsic.

== Add research on Amotivation and extrinsic motivation here==
 

===What is intrinsic motivation, and how does competence relate to it?===
Self-determination theory describes a continuum from controlled motivation, acting because of external pressure, to autonomous motivation, acting because an activity feels genuinely valued or enjoyable (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). Competence satisfaction pushes people toward the autonomous end of this continuum, as feeling capable makes an activity feel more self-endorsed rather than merely obligatory. Intrinsically motivated behaviour is, by definition, behaviour engaged in for its own sake, and competence is one of the key needs that sustains it (Deci &amp; Ryan, 1985).
 
===What is cognitive evaluation theory, and how does it explain the impact of competence on intrinsic motivation?===
Cognitive Evaluation Theory, a mini-theory within SDT, proposes that competence-supportive feedback fuels intrinsic motivation only when it is paired with a sense of autonomy (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000). 

A meta-analysis by Fong and colleagues (2019) found that negative feedback undermines intrinsic motivation more than neutral or no feedback at all, demonstrating how the framing of feedback specifically affects perceived competence.

==Applying competence in practice==
Research in applied settings shows competence satisfaction has measurable consequences beyond the laboratory, and this evidence points toward concrete design changes.
 
===Empirical evidence in applied settings===
* Baard, Deci, and Ryan (2004) found that employees' satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the workplace predicted both performance and wellbeing.
* Taris, van Beek, and Schaufeli (2020) linked need satisfaction, including competence, to healthier patterns of work engagement over workaholism in a longitudinal study.
* Together, these findings suggest competence satisfaction is not just theoretically important but measurably consequential in real workplace outcomes.
 
===Applying competence-supportive design===
* Structuring feedback to be specific and frequent, calibrating task challenge to a person's current skill level, and building visible progress markers into training or teaching design are concrete ways to support competence satisfaction (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* Returning to the opening scenario, regular check-ins with a manager or clearer upfront guidance could have restored a sense of competence earlier, rather than leaving it to develop through trial and error.
* This has practical relevance for managers designing onboarding, teachers structuring assessment, and coaches structuring skill progression.
 
Quiz question. 
Choose your answer and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following best supports the psychological need for competence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Vague, infrequent feedback
- No feedback at all
+ Structured feedback paired with achievable challenge
- Constant praise regardless of performance
&lt;/quiz&gt;

- add a question on how environments change motivation... e.g work and school

==Conclusion==
Competence is a distinct, well-evidenced psychological need central to self-determination theory. Its satisfaction, or frustration, has measurable effects on motivation, performance, and wellbeing across educational, workplace, and everyday settings. Practical design choices, particularly around feedback and challenge calibration, can meaningfully support this need and improve people's motivational lives.


{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem

== See also ==

==References==
Put into alphabetical order

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior (1st ed.). Springer New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness (pp. xii, 756). The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806

Baard, P. P., Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2004). Intrinsic Need Satisfaction: A Motivational Basis of Performance and Well-Being in Two Work Settings. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34(10), 2045–2068. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02690.

Fong, C. J., Patall, E. A., Vasquez, A. C., &amp; Stautberg, S. (2019). A Meta-Analysis of Negative Feedback on Intrinsic Motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 31(1), 121–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-018-9446-6

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Taris, T. W., van Beek, I., &amp; Schaufeli, W. B. (2020). The Motivational Make-Up of Workaholism and Work Engagement: A Longitudinal Study on Need Satisfaction, Motivation, and Heavy Work Investment. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1419. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01419

==External links==
https://open.ncl.ac.uk/theories/20/self-determination-theory/</text>
      <sha1>cdlpr41icenv6eif6xcp38do7f8lgra</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832582</id>
      <parentid>2830735</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T08:17:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Topic development feedback</comment>
      <origin>2832582</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7650" sha1="f2ldwrmxpd2pi904bw2m9ea5izfvysx" xml:space="preserve">== Overview scenario ==

Hey there!

Super interesting topic you have chosen, as well as an awesome start to hook your readers in. The only additional suggestion I would make is to place your scenario into a feature box, to make it really stand out. Other than that, great start. [[User:LMM26|LMM26]] ([[User talk:LMM26|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/LMM26|contribs]]) 13:59, 25 August 2026 (UTC)

== User page == 
 
Hi there, 

Interesting topic.

I have a small suggestion regarding your page. It might be better to create a separate user page for your personal information and social contributions, rather than including it on the same page as your book chapter. This would help keep the book chapter page focused and organised.

Thanks and all the best.--[[User:P U3270518|P U3270518]] ([[User talk:P U3270518|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/P U3270518|contribs]]) 11:26, 3 September 2026 (UTC)

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
# Remove bold from headings (use default heading styles)
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 1-level --&gt;
# Basic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – would benefit from further development (e.g., consider using subheadings)
# The stand-alone research section isn't needed; instead, integrate research into the other sections
# The emphasis appears to be on social aspects, but also consider other theoretical (e.g., physiological, emotional, cognitive)
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A basic scenario is presented. The planned scenario is somewhat abstract and lacking in viscerality. Consider providng a more user-friendly scenario.
# I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
# Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections.
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use present, rather than future, tense
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Develop closer alignment between the sub-title and the focus questions
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Promising development
# Highlight the most relevant theories and synthesise the best research on the topic
# Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic, rather than describing individual study after individual study
# The proposed chapter overly emphasises research and insufficiently emphasises theory
# Provide more detailed edit summaries
&lt;!-- Scope --&gt;
# It may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count, so be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title
&lt;!-- Writing style --&gt;
# The writing style is generally clear but could be simplified or made more concise
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# Tip: Rather than starting with an author name and citation, start with the more interesting part (i.e., the substance) and put the citation at the end or mid-way through the sentence
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is underway
# Overly focused on research; insufficiently focused on thoery
# At risk of being overly detailed
# What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. Also link to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Excellent use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Keep scenarios brief 
# Basic use of scenario/example/case study
# Placeholder use of scenarios/examples/case studies
# Make the relevance of the scenario to the topic more clear
# Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice.
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages (instead of the key points feature boxes)
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]]
# Add table captions
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Very good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## Insufficient
## One of two link types provided
### Also link to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use internal link style as shown in Tutorial 2
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Include source in brackets after link (e.g., (Wikipedia) or (Book chapter, year) for Wikiversity book chapters)
## Use alphabetical order
## Move academic link into References and cite
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Basic
## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
## Include source in brackets after link
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
#* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
#* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
# To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click &quot;compare selected revisions&quot;, and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]].
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:17, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>f2ldwrmxpd2pi904bw2m9ea5izfvysx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Competence motivation in self-determination theory</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832538</id>
      <parentid>2830994</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T04:19:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3285438</username>
        <id>3103750</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recommendation for 'see also' section */ new section</comment>
      <origin>2832538</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1501" sha1="1wpxzkosl6ulld8076xdub260sdsh8m" xml:space="preserve">== External Link Suggestion ==

Hey! 

Here is a possible resource for your external links section! 

https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/the-theory/

- Amira [[User:Amirrorslens|Amirrorslens]] ([[User talk:Amirrorslens|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Amirrorslens|contribs]]) 17:50, 3 September 2026 (UTC)

== Article ! ==

Here's an article for your topic development! This article is competence focused :)

[https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/c/aprr63/viewer/pdf/5ucach4vsn?route=details Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence] [[User:Amirrorslens|Amirrorslens]] ([[User talk:Amirrorslens|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Amirrorslens|contribs]]) 20:11, 3 September 2026 (UTC)

== Recommendation for 'see also' section ==
Hi there, 

Great job on your topic development, I enjoyed reading your work thus far!

I noticed that you had not yet added the ''See also'' section to your chapter, so I took the liberty of [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCompetence_motivation_in_self-determination_theory&amp;diff=2832537&amp;oldid=2831095 adding it for you]! It might be worth linking some relevant book chapters or Wikipedia pages in this section (e.g., [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-determination theory|self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2011)).

Best regards.  [[User:U3285438|U3285438]] ([[User talk:U3285438|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3285438|contribs]]) 04:19, 10 September 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>1wpxzkosl6ulld8076xdub260sdsh8m</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HTML/Images</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832438</id>
      <timestamp>2026-09-09T18:06:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-48921-69</username>
        <id>3110823</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Completed the 'HTML/Images' page. Added several sections about adding images to websites, sizing, editing attributes, and using images as backgrounds.</comment>
      <origin>2832438</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4089" sha1="r8lwbzarxrcun8q3xxo1ddlu7sokdxr" xml:space="preserve">Images, which use the tag &lt;code&gt;&lt;img&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, are very simple to understand, and they are a vital piece of web design. This article will go over the basics of image linking, and the basics of what you can do with an image. 

=== Linking to an image ===
There are several ways to link to an image. For example, you can simply link to an image that exists as a file on your computer, or you can link to a file on the internet. Linking a file on the internet, though extremely easy, means that its path can also be deleted or changed. It can also be restricted under copyright laws. Keep this in mind while building your websites, because you may lose an important part of your website.

You can use all file types when coding HTML. Depending on the file you're using, it may not load on certain web browsers. Files that can be universally loaded on all browsers include: ''.PNG'', ''.GIF'', ''.JPEG'', ''.APNG'', ''.SVG''.

Linking to a file works like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt;
The source, or &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, links to the pathway connected to the file and inserts it into your web page. 

To link to an existing file inside of a folder, include the '''folder name''' in the &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt; attribute, like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;'''/folder/'''book.png&quot;&gt;
Here is an example of linking to a file on the internet:
 &lt;img src=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt;
You can do this by copying the image address of an image. If you are unaware of how to do this, either right-click on an image and scroll down to 'Copy image address,' or use two fingers on your mouse pad and click the option.

=== Editing the attributes of an image ===
These are the basics of sizing and adding other characteristics to an image. More advanced levels of editing (such as image borders, filters, etc.) can be achieved by applying CSS to your HTML code. 

===== The size of an image =====
The tags &lt;code&gt;&lt;width&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;height&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, along with their specified sizes, can change the size of your image. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot; height=&quot;700px&quot;&gt;
or
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200%&quot; height=&quot;700%&quot;&gt;

====== Other attributes ======
There are several other characteristics that you can change when linking an image. The &lt;code&gt;&lt;alt&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag is used to make '''alternate text'''. It can be used to make your site accessible for those who cannot see the image, and it can be read by screen readers. It also appears when the image cannot properly load. Testing if alternate text works can be achieved by purposefully misspelling the name of your file. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; alt=&quot;Picture of a red book.&quot;&gt;
'''Links''' can also be applied to your images, using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;a&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag. Make sure that your image is inside of the tag, or else it will not work:
 &lt;a href=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;
A useful tool to organize your website is the &lt;code&gt;&lt;float&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which can move your image around the text. It is limited to being moved either to the left or the right of your container:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt;
An image can be moved freely around a page when using the &lt;position&gt; tag

=== Images as backgrounds ===
If you want a fancy background for your website, it is very simple to understand. Using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;style&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which functions as CSS code, you can edit the backgrounds of paragraphs, headers, dividers, and other parts of your website.

Editing the background of your '''entire website''' (aka the &lt;code&gt;&lt;body&gt;&lt;/code&gt; of your website):
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png');&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
or (this format may look a bit odd, since it's horizontal)
 &lt;style&gt; body { background-image: url('bg.png'); } &lt;/style&gt;
Your background may repeat if it is small enough to do so. To prevent this, either use a bigger image (recommended: 1920px x 1080px), or use this:
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat;&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
Editing the background of '''other elements''', like a paragraph or divider, follows the same formatting like this:
 &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;background-image: url('picture.jpg');&quot;&gt;This is a paragraph element.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>r8lwbzarxrcun8q3xxo1ddlu7sokdxr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832507</id>
      <parentid>2832438</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T01:18:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-49219-72</username>
        <id>3110837</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other attributes */</comment>
      <origin>2832507</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4102" sha1="pdmqqnq0ccie78yjqthtoz3skl8ev5f" xml:space="preserve">Images, which use the tag &lt;code&gt;&lt;img&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, are very simple to understand, and they are a vital piece of web design. This article will go over the basics of image linking, and the basics of what you can do with an image. 

=== Linking to an image ===
There are several ways to link to an image. For example, you can simply link to an image that exists as a file on your computer, or you can link to a file on the internet. Linking a file on the internet, though extremely easy, means that its path can also be deleted or changed. It can also be restricted under copyright laws. Keep this in mind while building your websites, because you may lose an important part of your website.

You can use all file types when coding HTML. Depending on the file you're using, it may not load on certain web browsers. Files that can be universally loaded on all browsers include: ''.PNG'', ''.GIF'', ''.JPEG'', ''.APNG'', ''.SVG''.

Linking to a file works like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt;
The source, or &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, links to the pathway connected to the file and inserts it into your web page. 

To link to an existing file inside of a folder, include the '''folder name''' in the &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt; attribute, like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;'''/folder/'''book.png&quot;&gt;
Here is an example of linking to a file on the internet:
 &lt;img src=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt;
You can do this by copying the image address of an image. If you are unaware of how to do this, either right-click on an image and scroll down to 'Copy image address,' or use two fingers on your mouse pad and click the option.

=== Editing the attributes of an image ===
These are the basics of sizing and adding other characteristics to an image. More advanced levels of editing (such as image borders, filters, etc.) can be achieved by applying CSS to your HTML code. 

===== The size of an image =====
The tags &lt;code&gt;&lt;width&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;height&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, along with their specified sizes, can change the size of your image. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot; height=&quot;700px&quot;&gt;
or
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200%&quot; height=&quot;700%&quot;&gt;

====== Other attributes ======
There are several other characteristics that you can change when linking an image. The &lt;code&gt;&lt;alt&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag is used to make '''alternate text'''. It can be used to make your site accessible for those who cannot see the image, and it can be read by screen readers. It also appears when the image cannot properly load. Testing if alternate text works can be achieved by purposefully misspelling the name of your file. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; alt=&quot;Picture of a red book.&quot;&gt;
'''Links''' can also be applied to your images, using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;a&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag. Make sure that your image is inside of the tag, or else it will not work:
 &lt;a href=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;
A useful tool to organize your website is the &lt;code&gt;&lt;align&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which can move your image around the text. It is limited to being moved either to the left or the right of your container:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; style=&quot;align:right;&quot;&gt;
An image can be moved freely around a page when using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;position&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag

=== Images as backgrounds ===
If you want a fancy background for your website, it is very simple to understand. Using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;style&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which functions as CSS code, you can edit the backgrounds of paragraphs, headers, dividers, and other parts of your website.

Editing the background of your '''entire website''' (aka the &lt;code&gt;&lt;body&gt;&lt;/code&gt; of your website):
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png');&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
or (this format may look a bit odd, since it's horizontal)
 &lt;style&gt; body { background-image: url('bg.png'); } &lt;/style&gt;
Your background may repeat if it is small enough to do so. To prevent this, either use a bigger image (recommended: 1920px x 1080px), or use this:
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat;&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
Editing the background of '''other elements''', like a paragraph or divider, follows the same formatting like this:
 &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;background-image: url('picture.jpg');&quot;&gt;This is a paragraph element.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>pdmqqnq0ccie78yjqthtoz3skl8ev5f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832508</id>
      <parentid>2832507</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T01:19:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-49219-72</username>
        <id>3110837</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other attributes */</comment>
      <origin>2832508</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4022" sha1="bkhg1m0yxks22g44u759m5pgbzin59x" xml:space="preserve">Images, which use the tag &lt;code&gt;&lt;img&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, are very simple to understand, and they are a vital piece of web design. This article will go over the basics of image linking, and the basics of what you can do with an image. 

=== Linking to an image ===
There are several ways to link to an image. For example, you can simply link to an image that exists as a file on your computer, or you can link to a file on the internet. Linking a file on the internet, though extremely easy, means that its path can also be deleted or changed. It can also be restricted under copyright laws. Keep this in mind while building your websites, because you may lose an important part of your website.

You can use all file types when coding HTML. Depending on the file you're using, it may not load on certain web browsers. Files that can be universally loaded on all browsers include: ''.PNG'', ''.GIF'', ''.JPEG'', ''.APNG'', ''.SVG''.

Linking to a file works like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt;
The source, or &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, links to the pathway connected to the file and inserts it into your web page. 

To link to an existing file inside of a folder, include the '''folder name''' in the &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt; attribute, like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;'''/folder/'''book.png&quot;&gt;
Here is an example of linking to a file on the internet:
 &lt;img src=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt;
You can do this by copying the image address of an image. If you are unaware of how to do this, either right-click on an image and scroll down to 'Copy image address,' or use two fingers on your mouse pad and click the option.

=== Editing the attributes of an image ===
These are the basics of sizing and adding other characteristics to an image. More advanced levels of editing (such as image borders, filters, etc.) can be achieved by applying CSS to your HTML code. 

===== The size of an image =====
The tags &lt;code&gt;&lt;width&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;height&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, along with their specified sizes, can change the size of your image. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot; height=&quot;700px&quot;&gt;
or
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200%&quot; height=&quot;700%&quot;&gt;

====== Other attributes ======
There are several other characteristics that you can change when linking an image. The &lt;code&gt;&lt;alt&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag is used to make '''alternate text'''. It can be used to make your site accessible for those who cannot see the image, and it can be read by screen readers. It also appears when the image cannot properly load. Testing if alternate text works can be achieved by purposefully misspelling the name of your file. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; alt=&quot;Picture of a red book.&quot;&gt;
'''Links''' can also be applied to your images, using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;a&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag. Make sure that your image is inside of the tag, or else it will not work:
 &lt;a href=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;
A useful tool to organize your website is the &lt;code&gt;&lt;align&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which can move your image around the text:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; style=&quot;align:right;&quot;&gt;
An image can be moved freely around a page when using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;position&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag

=== Images as backgrounds ===
If you want a fancy background for your website, it is very simple to understand. Using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;style&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which functions as CSS code, you can edit the backgrounds of paragraphs, headers, dividers, and other parts of your website.

Editing the background of your '''entire website''' (aka the &lt;code&gt;&lt;body&gt;&lt;/code&gt; of your website):
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png');&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
or (this format may look a bit odd, since it's horizontal)
 &lt;style&gt; body { background-image: url('bg.png'); } &lt;/style&gt;
Your background may repeat if it is small enough to do so. To prevent this, either use a bigger image (recommended: 1920px x 1080px), or use this:
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat;&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
Editing the background of '''other elements''', like a paragraph or divider, follows the same formatting like this:
 &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;background-image: url('picture.jpg');&quot;&gt;This is a paragraph element.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
      <sha1>bkhg1m0yxks22g44u759m5pgbzin59x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832511</id>
      <parentid>2832508</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T01:24:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-49219-72</username>
        <id>3110837</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>'Try it yourself,' wrapped up the coding section with an encouraging message.</comment>
      <origin>2832511</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4373" sha1="olr8deh1e2nlgsrn6i600uaj81i3vsc" xml:space="preserve">Images, which use the tag &lt;code&gt;&lt;img&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, are very simple to understand, and they are a vital piece of web design. This article will go over the basics of image linking, and the basics of what you can do with an image. 

=== Linking to an image ===
There are several ways to link to an image. For example, you can simply link to an image that exists as a file on your computer, or you can link to a file on the internet. Linking a file on the internet, though extremely easy, means that its path can also be deleted or changed. It can also be restricted under copyright laws. Keep this in mind while building your websites, because you may lose an important part of your website.

You can use all file types when coding HTML. Depending on the file you're using, it may not load on certain web browsers. Files that can be universally loaded on all browsers include: ''.PNG'', ''.GIF'', ''.JPEG'', ''.APNG'', ''.SVG''.

Linking to a file works like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt;
The source, or &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, links to the pathway connected to the file and inserts it into your web page. 

To link to an existing file inside of a folder, include the '''folder name''' in the &lt;code&gt;&lt;src&gt;&lt;/code&gt; attribute, like this:
 &lt;img src=&quot;'''/folder/'''book.png&quot;&gt;
Here is an example of linking to a file on the internet:
 &lt;img src=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt;
You can do this by copying the image address of an image. If you are unaware of how to do this, either right-click on an image and scroll down to 'Copy image address,' or use two fingers on your mouse pad and click the option.

=== Editing the attributes of an image ===
These are the basics of sizing and adding other characteristics to an image. More advanced levels of editing (such as image borders, filters, etc.) can be achieved by applying CSS to your HTML code. 

===== The size of an image =====
The tags &lt;code&gt;&lt;width&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;height&gt;&lt;/code&gt;, along with their specified sizes, can change the size of your image. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot; height=&quot;700px&quot;&gt;
or
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; width=&quot;200%&quot; height=&quot;700%&quot;&gt;

====== Other attributes ======
There are several other characteristics that you can change when linking an image. The &lt;code&gt;&lt;alt&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag is used to make '''alternate text'''. It can be used to make your site accessible for those who cannot see the image, and it can be read by screen readers. It also appears when the image cannot properly load. Testing if alternate text works can be achieved by purposefully misspelling the name of your file. 
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; alt=&quot;Picture of a red book.&quot;&gt;
'''Links''' can also be applied to your images, using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;a&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag. Make sure that your image is inside of the tag, or else it will not work:
 &lt;a href=&quot;linkexample&quot;&gt; &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot;&gt; &lt;/a&gt;
A useful tool to organize your website is the &lt;code&gt;&lt;align&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which can move your image around the text:
 &lt;img src=&quot;book.png&quot; style=&quot;align:right;&quot;&gt;
An image can be moved freely around a page when using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;position&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag

=== Images as backgrounds ===
If you want a fancy background for your website, it is very simple to understand. Using the &lt;code&gt;&lt;style&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag, which functions as CSS code, you can edit the backgrounds of paragraphs, headers, dividers, and other parts of your website.

Editing the background of your '''entire website''' (aka the &lt;code&gt;&lt;body&gt;&lt;/code&gt; of your website):
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png');&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
or (this format may look a bit odd, since it's horizontal)
 &lt;style&gt; body { background-image: url('bg.png'); } &lt;/style&gt;
Your background may repeat if it is small enough to do so. To prevent this, either use a bigger image (recommended: 1920px x 1080px), or use this:
 &lt;body style=&quot;background-image: url('bg.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat;&quot;&gt; &lt;/body&gt;
Editing the background of '''other elements''', like a paragraph or divider, follows the same formatting like this:
 &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;background-image: url('picture.jpg');&quot;&gt;This is a paragraph element.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

=== Try it yourself! ===
Using the basic pieces of code you learned above, try it out with your own images and links. Learning the basics about images can easily help you learn other aspects about HTML and CSS coding. There are tons of other attributes to mess with when it comes to image editing, and you can advance fast if you test out your code.</text>
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        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260908 - 20260907)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-09-09
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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      <text bytes="265" sha1="aabh25l2o3l7wd26mabsu7hbvnc8bth" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==

{{Information
|Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260908 - 20260907)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-09-09
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==

{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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      <comment>{{Information
|Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260909 - 20260908)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-09-09
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
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      <text bytes="263" sha1="si3gx3813yl2emrsjd8tr0t2x56jzy9" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=LCal.9A: Recursion (20260909 - 20260908)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2026-09-09
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2832479</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Topic development feedback</comment>
      <origin>2832479</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5319" sha1="1hld0pqnact5zzdn7qxf0zledtpcieh" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:LazPulch|Hi [[User:LazPulch|LazPulch]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 20:58, 9 September 2026 (UTC)
|}

&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2026
|1=
&lt;!-- Title --&gt;
# Title and/or subtitle not correctly worded and/or didn't use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] (fixed)
|2=
&lt;!-- Headings --&gt;
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|heading casing]]
&lt;!-- Heading structure --&gt;
&lt;!-- 2-level --&gt;
# Clear [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]
&lt;!-- Alignment with focus questions --&gt;
# Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure
|3=
&lt;!-- Overview--&gt;
# Excellent – Scenario, image, evocative description of the problem/topic, and focus questions
&lt;!-- Scenario --&gt;
# A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section
&lt;!-- Description --&gt;
# A clear description of the problem/topic is planned or presented
&lt;!-- Style --&gt;
# Use present, rather than future, tense
&lt;!-- Focus questions --&gt;
# Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings
|4=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Excellent – key points are well developed for each section
# Promising balance of theory and research; consider integrating/synthesising theory and research rather than presenting separately
# Perhaps also consider types/categories of AF (e.g., include eco-anxiety/ecological destruction fears (there is growing research about this))
&lt;!-- Theory and research --&gt;
&lt;!-- Citation style --&gt;
# Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/basic-principles APA style 7th edition for citations] (e.g., do not include author initials)
# Use correct capitalisation ([https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization APA style is a &quot;down&quot; style]) – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info]
&lt;!-- Other --&gt;
# For sections with sub-sections, provide key points for an overview paragraph prior to branching into the sub-headings
&lt;!-- Conclusion --&gt;
# Conclusion is underway
# What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions)
|5=
&lt;!-- Figure --&gt;
# Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned
&lt;!-- Cite --&gt;
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1)
|6=
&lt;!-- Learning feature --&gt;
&lt;!-- Interwiki links ---&gt;
# Excellent in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]
&lt;!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --&gt;
# Promising use of scenarios/examples/case studies
&lt;!-- Quiz --&gt;
# Promising use of quiz question(s)
# Place each quiz question in the most relevant section
# Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages
&lt;!-- Tables --&gt;
# Also consider using tables to summarise key information
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
&lt;!-- Overall --&gt;
# Good
&lt;!-- Systematic reviews --&gt;
# What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic?
&lt;!-- Move --&gt;
# Move Wikipedia links to the &quot;See also&quot; section
# Move non-academic / non-peer reviewed sources to the &quot;External links&quot; section
&lt;!-- Citations --&gt;
# All references need in-text citation
# All citations need to be in the References
# Only include references which have been accessed and read
&lt;!-- APA style --&gt;
# Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]:
## capitalisation
## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]]
## use dois where available instead of other links
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
&lt;!-- See also --&gt;
# See also
## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]])
&lt;!-- External links --&gt;
# External links
## Very good
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]]
## Use alphabetical order
|9=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Used effectively
&lt;!-- Description about self --&gt;
# Description about self provided
&lt;!-- Links to profile(s) --&gt;
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
&lt;!-- Link to book chapter --&gt;
# A link to the book chapter is provided
|10=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making:
#* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]]
#* posts about the unit or project on the {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum
}}</text>
      <sha1>1hld0pqnact5zzdn7qxf0zledtpcieh</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Emotional self-regulation</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Ten</username>
        <id>654933</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Michael Ten moved page [[Emotional self-regulation]] to [[Emotional regulation]]: moving page to re word it slightly - same concept effectively. please move it back if best. limitless peace. </comment>
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      <text bytes="34" sha1="i1ixj3htc8lf47hryodggt5ajgpir9v" xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emotional regulation]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Breathing exercises and relaxation</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>Heading casing</comment>
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      <text bytes="708" sha1="dg9c6xut3izzb72mn8guczr2u8bbioj" xml:space="preserve">== Heading casing ==
{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;color:inherit;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:E3297976|Hi [[User:E3297976|E3297976]].|}} FYI, the recommended [[Wikiversity]] heading style uses [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-determination theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
rather than
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Self-Determination Theory&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

Here's an example chapter with correct heading casing: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development]]

-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 01:24, 10 September 2026 (UTC)
|}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Universal Bibliography/Continents</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <id>2832539</id>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T04:19:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Spin out from main page. Adding text copied from [[Universal Bibliography]].</comment>
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      <text bytes="10657" sha1="sk788cvi62xeiydl4h6bv1d8h88f8hf" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

===Asia===

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

====East Asia====
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

====Far East====
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

====China, Japan and Korea====
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

====Japan and Korea====
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

====South Asia====
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

====South East Asia====
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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      <id>2832542</id>
      <parentid>2832539</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T04:22:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Asia */ Add</comment>
      <origin>2832542</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10643" sha1="i0gqhr8cumv06sl99yezmzzhdwmbz23" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Europe===
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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      <id>2832543</id>
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        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
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      <text bytes="10641" sha1="dp2juav3r6hvm25mtfdt0huuypgvkny" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

===South America===
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
      <sha1>dp2juav3r6hvm25mtfdt0huuypgvkny</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832544</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
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      <text bytes="10639" sha1="aypesb9v8gxpf2tfnvr6fiovitjqecn" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
      <sha1>aypesb9v8gxpf2tfnvr6fiovitjqecn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832545</id>
      <parentid>2832544</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T04:24:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* South East Asia */ Add</comment>
      <origin>2832545</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11293" sha1="kwehyp8tixn824am320o1r72g4x4syw" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Soviet Central Asia: A Selected Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zoU1AAAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832547</id>
      <parentid>2832545</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T04:27:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Central Asia */ Cut for now</comment>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11195" sha1="tu58ta8nv3oooc801kridncmhih21ba" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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      <id>2832548</id>
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        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
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      <text bytes="11389" sha1="kkxw896mvep8b0omuwo8bj6vkit0rit" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
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      <text bytes="11575" sha1="b52uezgtztraso0x93d54pwlm669izb" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
      <sha1>b52uezgtztraso0x93d54pwlm669izb</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2832552</id>
      <parentid>2832551</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Asia */ Add</comment>
      <origin>2832552</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11637" sha1="dwsxbsdnij1r605lzsxgb7rw7v4ndqd" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
      <sha1>dwsxbsdnij1r605lzsxgb7rw7v4ndqd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2832553</id>
      <parentid>2832552</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-09-10T05:03:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* South East Asia */ Add</comment>
      <origin>2832553</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11816" sha1="n9fdb3fduoiuwgv69nme3dfs5d2t1y6" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for Indonesia, Malaysia &amp; Singapore. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TeCFAAAAIAAJ]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Africa==
*Africa Bibliography
**Africa Bibliography 1997: Works on Africa published during 1997 [https://books.google.com/books?id=7WuRMQEACAAJ]
*Alfred Kagan and Atoma Batoma. Reference Guide to Africa: A Bibliography of Sources. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. 3rd Ed: 2014: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCovBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Alfred Kagan and Yvette Scheven. Scarecrow Press. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wMoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliographies for African Studies.
**Yvette Scheven. Bibliographies for African Studies, 1970-1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUUAQAAIAAJ]
**Yvette Scheven (ed). 1987-1993 [https://books.google.com/books?id=n8oUAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for Indonesia, Malaysia &amp; Singapore. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TeCFAAAAIAAJ]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Africa==
*Africa Bibliography
**Africa Bibliography 1997: Works on Africa published during 1997 [https://books.google.com/books?id=7WuRMQEACAAJ]
*Alfred Kagan and Atoma Batoma. Reference Guide to Africa: A Bibliography of Sources. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. 3rd Ed: 2014: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCovBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Alfred Kagan and Yvette Scheven. Scarecrow Press. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wMoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliographies for African Studies.
**Yvette Scheven. Bibliographies for African Studies, 1970-1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUUAQAAIAAJ]
**Yvette Scheven (ed). 1987-1993 [https://books.google.com/books?id=n8oUAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .
*Asia: a bibliography for secondary schools. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZVmVJOHUwesC vol 1]

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for Indonesia, Malaysia &amp; Singapore. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TeCFAAAAIAAJ]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Africa==
*Africa Bibliography
**Africa Bibliography 1997: Works on Africa published during 1997 [https://books.google.com/books?id=7WuRMQEACAAJ]
*Alfred Kagan and Atoma Batoma. Reference Guide to Africa: A Bibliography of Sources. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. 3rd Ed: 2014: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCovBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Alfred Kagan and Yvette Scheven. Scarecrow Press. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wMoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliographies for African Studies.
**Yvette Scheven. Bibliographies for African Studies, 1970-1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUUAQAAIAAJ]
**Yvette Scheven (ed). 1987-1993 [https://books.google.com/books?id=n8oUAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==

*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .
*Asia: a bibliography for secondary schools. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZVmVJOHUwesC vol 1]

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.
*Contributions to Asian Studies. E J Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=u_oUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for Indonesia, Malaysia &amp; Singapore. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TeCFAAAAIAAJ]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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        <username>James500</username>
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This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Africa==
*Africa Bibliography
**Africa Bibliography 1997: Works on Africa published during 1997 [https://books.google.com/books?id=7WuRMQEACAAJ]
*Alfred Kagan and Atoma Batoma. Reference Guide to Africa: A Bibliography of Sources. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. 3rd Ed: 2014: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCovBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Alfred Kagan and Yvette Scheven. Scarecrow Press. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wMoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliographies for African Studies.
**Yvette Scheven. Bibliographies for African Studies, 1970-1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUUAQAAIAAJ]
**Yvette Scheven (ed). 1987-1993 [https://books.google.com/books?id=n8oUAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==
*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .
*Asia: a bibliography for secondary schools. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZVmVJOHUwesC vol 1]

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.
*Contributions to Asian Studies. E J Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=u_oUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Asian Studies. The Journal of the Indian Institute of Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dYbAAAAMAAJ]

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for Indonesia, Malaysia &amp; Singapore. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TeCFAAAAIAAJ]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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        <username>James500</username>
        <id>297601</id>
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      <text bytes="12937" sha1="5cj8i0smp0qlyf9z6atyn645vssu4q1" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of continents.

*John J W Rogers and M Santosh. Continents and Supercontinents. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CI9Ig7DGvTMC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Origin and Evolution of Continents: Proceedings of the Internation Symposium &quot;Origin and Evolution of Continents&quot;, 13-14 October 1997, Tokyo. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sG0SAQAAIAAJ]

Gondwanaland
*George W Bain. A Laurasian Looks at Gondwanaland. Geographical Society of South Africa. (Annexure to vol 67). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LoAyAQAAIAAJ]

==Africa==
*Africa Bibliography
**Africa Bibliography 1997: Works on Africa published during 1997 [https://books.google.com/books?id=7WuRMQEACAAJ]
*Alfred Kagan and Atoma Batoma. Reference Guide to Africa: A Bibliography of Sources. Rowman &amp; Littlefield. 3rd Ed: 2014: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCovBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].
**Alfred Kagan and Yvette Scheven. Scarecrow Press. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wMoUAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliographies for African Studies.
**Yvette Scheven. Bibliographies for African Studies, 1970-1986 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cMUUAQAAIAAJ]
**Yvette Scheven (ed). 1987-1993 [https://books.google.com/books?id=n8oUAQAAIAAJ]

==Asia==
*Winston L Y Yang and Teresa S Yang. Asian Resources in American Libraries: Essays and Bibliographies. 1968. [https://books.google.com/books?id=76OkUAbkd4oC]
*Noriko Asato (ed). Handbook for Asian Studies Specialists: A Guide to Research Materials and Collection Building Tools. Libraries Unlimited. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jkzEEAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]. Review: [https://www.emerald.com/rr/article-abstract/29/3/51/335520/Handbook-for-Asian-Studies-Specialists-A-Guide-to].
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for . . .
*Asia: a bibliography for secondary schools. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZVmVJOHUwesC vol 1]

Periodicals
*Asian Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EDq22yvuCb4C]

Asian studies and languages
*Pauline Haldane. Bibliography of Asian Studies and Languages. 1990. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQLAQAAIAAJ]

Asian studies
*Bibliography of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7NskAAAAMAAJ 1974].
*Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1941-1965. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p_UqAAAAMAAJ]
**Cumulative Bibliography of Asian Studies, 1966-1970. GK Hall &amp; Co. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg8rAAAAMAAJ]

Asian studies, periodicals
*The Journal of Asian Studies. Association for Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rjznDmjqY9kC]
**Far Eastern Quarterly. Far Eastern Association.
*Asian Studies. Institute of Asian Studies, University of the Philippines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HLhBAAAAYAAJ]. Asian Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O9TvU9gAP1kC]
*Journal of the Institute of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-DptAAAAMAAJ]
*Asian Studies Newsletter [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pTIuAQAAIAAJ]
*Asian Studies Professional Review [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mgsLAQAAMAAJ]
*The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IiVuAAAAMAAJ]
*The Virginia Review of Asian Studies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2ORVAAAAYAAJ]
*Focus. Focus on Asian Studies. (1981 to 1987) ISSN 0046-4295.
*Contributions to Asian Studies. E J Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=u_oUAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Southeast Review of Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GhwrU4yAXVkC]
*Asian Studies. The Journal of the Indian Institute of Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dYbAAAAMAAJ]

Reference
*G Raymond Nunn. Asia, Reference Works: A Select Annotated Guide. Mansell. London. 1980. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeS5AAAAIAAJ]
**Asia: A Selected and Annotated Guide to Reference Works. 1971. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MmldAAAAIAAJ]

Introductory bibliographies
*An Introductory Reading Guide to Asia. Asia Society. 2nd Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HrMM1ttWe9QC]
*L King Quan. Introduction to Asia: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress, Reference Department. Washington. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y18ZAAAAMAAJ]

Introduction
*Jean Herbert. An Introduction to Asia. Oxford University Press. New York. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W8m6AAAAIAAJ]. George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. London. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2JYNAAAAIAAJ]
*Angelina C Irapta and Cecil D Duka. Introduction to Asia: History, Culture, and Civilization. [[w:Rex Book Store|Rex Book Store]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wLnUSsGSWFYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Today
*Parker Worley (comp). Asia Today: A Bibliography. Roscoe L West Library, Trenton State College. 1960. [https://books.google.com/books?id=5e4nTBCGFZgC].
**Supplement by Victor Klopp.
*Asia Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2mm2AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v2e2AAAAIAAJ]
*Robert Elegant. Pacific Destiny: Inside Asia Today. Crown Publishers. 1990. ISBN 0-517-57234-6. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OOdtAAAAMAAJ]
*Han Suyin. Asia Today: Two Outlooks. McGill-Queen's University Press. 1969. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EFM9AAAAMAAJ]

Modern
*David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlcOAQAAMAAJ]
*W R McAuliffe. Modern Asia Explained. Blackie &amp; Sons Ltd. London and Glasgow. 1952.
*Ian Thomson. The Rise of Modern Asia. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AoxAAQAAIAAJ]

East Asia and South East Asia
*Steven A Leibo. East and Southeast Asia. (The World Today Series)
**(50th Ed: The World Today Series 2017-2018). ISBN 9781475835229. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mU2AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**(44th Ed: The World Today Series 2011). ISBN 9781935264200. 

===East Asia===
*G Raymond Nunn. East Asia: A Bibliography of Bibliographies. (Occasional Papers of East-West Center Library, No 7). Honolulu. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWOTAAAAIAAJ]
*East Asia: A Selected Functional Bibliography. Foreign Service Institute, Center for Area and Country Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ByXkdOpCwF8C&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Gillin. East Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q7cIAAAAIAAJ]
*Thomas C Kuo and John W Chiang. East Asian Periodicals and Serials: A Descriptive Bibliography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eA1GAAAAMAAJ]
*Bibliographic Guide to East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=t7WFAAAAIAAJ 1996].
*Eastern Asia. (Asia and Africa Introductory Bibliographies). University of London. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZcspAQAAIAAJ]

East Asian studies, periodicals
*Journal of East Asian Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=57a5AAAAIAAJ]
*European Journal of East Asian Studies. Brill. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XoYwAQAAIAAJ]
*The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies. Center for Pacific Asia Studies, Stockholm University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JNguAQAAIAAJ]
*Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies. Academy of East Asian Studies at Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=82VuAAAAMAAJ]

===Far East===
Bibliography
*Far Eastern Bibliography. Far Eastern Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZnYUAAAAIAAJ 1947]
*Kuniyoshi. Far East. (PACAF Basic Bibliographies). 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q5TLdCbP2HcC&amp;pg=PP5#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Bibliography on the Far East. (Special Circulars numbers 44 to 51) Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dmkZAAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===China, Japan and Korea===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for China, Japan &amp; Korea. Asian Studies Research Library, Monash University Library. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d-CFAAAAIAAJ]
*Carla Rickerson and Tony Ferguson (comp). The Civilizations of China, Japan, and Korea: A Selective Bibliography. Far Eastern Library, University of Washington. Seattle. 1972.

===Japan and Korea===
Bibliography
*Bernard S Silberman. Japan and Korea: A Critical Bibliography. University of Arizona Press. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=y6UIAAAAIAAJ]
*Frank J Shulman. Japan and Korea: An Annotated Bibliography of Doctoral Dissertations in Western Languages 1877-1969. American Library Association. 1970. Routledge. 2013. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xs62AQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

General
*Robert L Clark (consultant). Japan and Korea. (Regional Studies Series). Globe Book Company. 1993. ISBN 0-835-90421-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yxBy_cUHmUcC]
*Graciela de la Lama (ed). Japan and Korea 1. (30th International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia &amp; North Africa 1976). El Colegio De Mexico. ISBN 968-12-0163-9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vtdVAAAAYAAJ]
**Japan and Korea 2. 1982.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX8eAAAAMAAJ]

===South Asia===
*South Asian Bibliography: A Handbook and Guide. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aqwNAQAAIAAJ]
*The Bibliography of South Asian Periodicals: A Union-list of Periodicals in South Asian Languages. Harvester Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COV0nIUK0bgC]
*B H Farmer. An Introduction to South Asia. Methuen. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kB0NAAAAIAAJ]

*Henry Field. Bibliography on Southwestern Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LSJAAAAAMAAJ]

===South East Asia===
*Herman C Kemp. Bibliographies on Southeast Asia. KITLV Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XOjfAAAAMAAJ]
*Southeast Asia: A Bibliography for Undergraduate Libraries [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HMcUAQAAIAAJ]
*Cecil Hobbs (comp). Southeast Asia: An Annotated Bibliography of Selected Reference Sources in Western Languages. Revised and Enlarged. Greenwood Press. 1st Greenwood reprint: 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qIVzgzBpUZIC]
*South-East Asia: An Introduction. Europa Publications Limited. 1973. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7LaFAAAAIAAJ]
*Joanna Moore. South-East Asia Today. (Today Series TS). Kaye &amp; Ward Ltd. 1974. ISBN 0-7182-0453-0. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mMVhAAAACAAJ] Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dlnpAAAAMAAJ 23] The School Librarian 60; [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2pkeAQAAMAAJ 39] The Junior Bookshelf 124.

Insular
*Insular Southeast Asia: A Bibliographic Survey 1971. (DA Pamphlet 550-12). Department of the Army. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Uuyc5DjR9ZgC&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

===Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore===
*Asia Access: A Guide to English Language Resources for Indonesia, Malaysia &amp; Singapore. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TeCFAAAAIAAJ]

===Central Asia===
*Richard A Pierce. Soviet Central Asia: A Bibliography. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDDgAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fP0VAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uS5FAQAAIAAJ]
*Bibliography of Recent Soviet Source Material on Soviet Central Asia and the Borderlands [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SwbZCcXHL0sC]
*Yuri Bregel. Bibliography of Islamic Central Asia. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S91mAAAAMAAJ]

*Journal of Central Asia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J05AAAAIAAJ]

==Europe==
*Hjalmar Pehrsson and Hanna Wulf (eds). The European Bibliography. La Bibliographie Européenne. AW Sijthoff. Leyden. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fc08AAAAIAAJ]
*Introduction to Europe: A Selective Guide to Background Reading. The Library of Congress. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wE3p8quPnWgC]

Eastern Europe
*Robert H Burger and Helen F Sullivan. Eastern Europe: A Bibliographic Guide to English Language Publications, 1986-1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=61VEAAAAMAAJ]
*Rebecca Gates-Coon. Eastern Europe Bibliography. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies No 2). Scarecrow Press. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4F7wxts8hXwC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Fodor's Eastern Europe [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FtNGAAAAMAAJ 1981]

==South America==
*T P O'Halloran (comp). A Bibliography of South America. 1912. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AV8zAQAAIAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofso00ohalrich/page/n4/mode/1up]
*John Boynton Kaiser (comp). The National Bibliographies of the South American Republics. The Boston Book Company. 1913. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nCkwAAAAYAAJ] [https://archive.org/details/nationalbibliogr00kaisrich/page/n2/mode/1up]. Reprint from 7 Bulletin of Bibliography

[[Category:Continents]]</text>
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